History of Islam

Imam `ali; the Holy Prophet's Successor in Medina

On those days, Medina was in a delicate and sensitive state. While Muslim troops were headed for a long mission, the hypocrites, despite their having nominally accepted Islam, disobeyed the Holy Prophet's orders and stayed in Medina. `Abdullah ibn Ubayy had gathered a great number of proponents around himself.[^94] In addition to the hypocrites, there was the worry and fear concerning the beaten and defeated enemies of Islam in Mecca, its vicinities and the nomads living around Medina.

Thus, it was crucial for a strong man to protect the newly established Islamic state while the Holy Prophet was away. For this purpose, the Holy Prophet appointed Imam `Ali as his successor, telling him, “In order to manage the affairs of Medina, either you or I should be present.”[^95]

Regarding this event, Mas`udi writes:

“It is advisable to say that the Prophet appointed Imam `Ali as his successor in Medina so that he could control those who opposed participating in the Prophet's military mission.”

Imam `Ali used to take part in all campaigns and battles of the Prophet[^96] and acted as a standard-bearer.[^97] The hypocrites, however, spread the rumor that the Holy Prophet let `Ali stay in Medina because he no longer loved him! Having heard this rumor, Imam `Ali became upset; he took his sword and attended the Holy Prophet's presence at al-Jurf.[^98] He rephrased the hypocrite’s claim and complained about the whole situation. The Holy Prophet replied:

“They are liars! You are my successor. Return and act as my successor. Are you not happy that your position to me is the same as (Prophet) Aaron’s position to (Prophet) Moses except that there will be no prophet after me?”[^99]

However, Shaykh al-Mufid accounts for this event in the following manner:

“My brother; Go back to your position, because nobody else, except for you or me, can govern Medina. You are my representative—from among my family members—on the citizens of my city and my nation. Are you not satisfied that your position to me is the same as (Prophet) Aaron’s position to (Prophet) Moses except that there will be no prophet after me?”

Ibn `Abd al-Barr al-Qurtubi, a Sunni scholar of the fifth century, writes:

The Holy Prophet appointed `Ali as his successor during the war of Tabuk; he was elected to be the Holy Prophet’s successor for his family and for the people of the city, telling him, “Your position to me is the same as Aaron’s position to Moses… etc.”

On the words of al-Bukhari and Muslim, the Holy Prophet likened `Ali to Prophet Aaron in relation to Prophet Moses.[^100]

This epoch–making statement of the Holy Prophet, which is called hadith al-manzilah (Narration of Position) is a clear proof of Imamate. Although this statement is uttered only on a specific occasion, Imam `Ali used to resemble Prophet Aaron in all cases of his associations with the Holy Prophet.[^101]

Hardships and obstacles on the way

Despite all these obstacles, the army of Islam left Medina, but as it could be predicted; Muslims encountered a lot of hardships concerning the long distances to be covered, the meager number of horses,[^102] the extreme heat and scarcity of water. For this reason, this war, in the history of Islam, is called war of hardship[^103] or the miserable army.[^104]

In any case, the army of Islam arrived at the land of Tabuk. There was no trace of the Roman army. The whole report of the Roman army had been false.[^105] This rumor had been fabricated to bring forth worry in the Islamic territory.[^106]

The Holy Prophet's treaties with local governors

The Holy Prophet stayed twenty days in Tabuk[^107] during which he convened treaties with the governor of Aylah and the people of Jarba' and Adhruh. They were obliged to pay tributes. After a military expedition, the powerful king of Dawmat al-Jandal surrendered and had to pay tribute.[^108]

The war of Tabuk took place in the ninth year of Hegira[^109] and some aspects of it are reflected in Surah al-Tawbah, which mainly deals with the hardships and weaknesses of some Muslims at the time of mobilization and the sabotages of the hypocrites. The famous issue of masjid zirar, or a mosque to cause harm and for unbelief, coincided with the war of Tabuk. (the Holy Qur'an, 9:107)

The consequences of the war of Tabuk

Although no military confrontation happened during this hard and intolerable mission, it had some significant consequences some of which are dealt with here:

(1) During this journey, the Holy Prophet, through convening peace treaties with the tribes and the governors of the borderlines of Hijaz and Damascus, could secure the tranquility of this region and guarantee that they would not cooperate with the Roman emperors.

(2) Through this military expedition, the commanders of the Muslim army became familiar with the hardships of this region; they learnt how to face such hardships. Likewise, they learned the techniques of military expeditions against the super powers of those days. That is why the first location that the Islamic army could conquer after the demise of the Holy Prophet was the land of Damascus.

(3) In this call for general mobilization, true believers could be distinguished from hypocrites and laggard ones. A sort of distinction took place in the Muslim troops.[^110]

(4) The boost in the military prestige of the Muslims brought forth the Arab's inclination to Islam and their representatives' readiness to show obedience.

The spread of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula

The conquest of Mecca and the war of Tabuk were pivotal in the spread of Islam in the Arabian Peninsula. The Tabuk expedition was a great maneuver in which the Muslims' military prestige was boosted and everybody could realize that Islam had reached such a status that it could confront the world's super ­powers. The political and military consequences of this maneuver were so great that,

upon the Holy Prophet's return to Medina, the chiefs of many Arab tribes who had refrained from turning to Islam up to that time entered Medina and announced obedience. The number of these chiefs who entered Medina to meet the Holy Prophet was so great that the ninth year of Hegira is termed Sanat al-Wufud (Year of Delegation).[^111]

Disavowal of Unbelievers Announcement

Upon the conquest of Mecca, the foundation was laid for the propagation of monotheism and the uprooting of idols and other superstitions. Most of the city-dwellers and villagers refrained from idol-worshipping and turned to Islam. However, few ignorant individuals were not ready yet to dispense with their cultures and it was hard on them to accept the creed of the Holy Prophet.

On the other hand, although the Holy Prophet had performed `Umrah several times, he had not yet had a chance to perform pilgrimage in the true sense of the word and away from the superstitions which were part of that ceremony in older days. Since the conquest of Mecca, two kinds of treaties were held between the Holy Prophet and the unbelievers:

General treaties

These treaties stipulated that everybody had the right to perform the Hajj and nobody should be deprived of it. In the sacred months, everybody must enjoy security and nobody should be bothered.

Long-termed treaties with Arab tribes

After the expedition of Tabuk,[^112] some verses of the Holy Qur'an were revealed to the Holy Prophet ordering him to stay away from the unbelievers and to follow the instructions revealed to him. These verses say:

This is a declaration of immunity by Allah and His Apostle towards those of the idolaters with whom you made an agreement. So go about in the land for four months and know that you cannot weaken Allah and that Allah will bring disgrace to the unbelievers.

And an announcement from Allah and His Apostle to the people on the day of the greater pilgrimage that Allah and His Apostle are free from liability to the idolaters; therefore, if you repent, it will be better for you, and if you turn back, then know that you will not weaken Allah;

and announce painful punishment to those who disbelieve. Except those of idolaters with whom you made an agreement, then they have not failed you in anything and have not backed up any one against you, so fulfill their agreement to the end of their term; surely, Allah loves those who are careful of their duty. So when the sacred months have passed away, then slay the idolaters wherever you find them, and take from captives and besiege them and lie in wait for them in every ambush, then if they repent and keep up prayer and pay the poor – rate, leave their way free to them; surely Allah is Forgiving, Merciful. (9:1-5)

The Prophet's special envoy and representative

After the revelation of these verses, the Holy Prophet taught part of the first verses of this surah to Abu-Bakr and instructed him to recite them to the pilgrims on the Feast of Sacrifice (`«d al-Azha). As Abu-Bakr headed for Mecca, the Holy Prophet received a revelation instructing that these verses should be recited to people by either the Holy Prophet himself or one belonging to him. Having received this message, the Holy Prophet ordered Imam `Ali to head for Mecca and take this mission from Abu- Bakr.

Imam `Ali took the Holy Prophet's camel, headed for Mecca and gave the message to Abu-Bakr. Having carried out the orders, Abu-Bakr returned to Medina offended; when he presented himself before the Holy Prophet, he said, “You had assumed me capable of doing this mission; but very soon you put me aside. Have you received any order from God regarding this issue?” The Holy Prophet replied, “God has ordered me to carry out this command either in person or by one who belong to me.”

Announcement of Disavowal and Warning

On the tenth of Dhu’l-Hijjah, Imam `Ali entered Mecca and recited Surah al-Tawbah to the public.[^113] He then informed everyone of the Holy Prophet's warning:

(1) God and His Apostle dislike the unbelievers. (2) No unbeliever is allowed to perform the Hajj from next year on. (3) Nobody is allowed to circumambulate the Kaaba with naked body.[^114] (4) For the coming four months, the unbelievers are allowed to return to their native lands. After the expiration of these four months, there will not be any truce for any unbeliever except those who are in contract with the Holy Prophet. Their treaties are valid up to their deadlines. (5) No infidel shall enter Paradise.[^115]

Following this warning, the infidels blamed themselves, saying, “Now that Quraysh have converted to Islam, what shall we do?” So, they had to embrace Islam[^116].

From that year on, no infidel performed the Hajj ceremonies; and no one did so naked.[^117]

Mutual Cursing with the Najran Christians

Parallel to correspondence with the governors of the world, the Holy Prophet wrote a letter to the bishop of Najran.[^118] Praising the God of Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac and Jacob, the Holy Prophet asked the bishop and his followers to stop worshiping people, start worshiping God, leave allegiance to people and accept loyalty and allegiance of God; lest they should pay a special tax or be prepared for a war.[^119]

According to some narrations, the Holy Prophet mentioned the following holy verse in his letter:

Say: O followers of the Book! come to an equitable proposition between us and you that we shall not serve any but Allah and (that) we shall not associate aught with Him, and (that) some of us shall not take others for lords besides Allah; but if they turn back, then say: Bear witness that we are Muslims. (3/64)[^120]

Receiving the letter, the Bishop convened a session with religious personalities to discuss the issue, since the Christian scholars had known some prophesized features of the Holy Prophet. They therefore decided to send a convoy to Medina in order to meet the Holy Prophet and study his character.

Upon their arrival in Medina, headed by three religious personalities including the bishop himself, the Holy Prophet met them and invited them to Islam. He recited some verses of the Holy Qur'an. The envoy replied, “We have been Muslims before you.” The Holy Prophet said, “You are liars. There are three things which hinder you from being Muslims: you worship the Cross, eat pork, and assign a child for God.”

Then, the topic of Jesus being God or God's servant started. Relying on the miracles of Jesus Christ, such as giving life to the dead, knowing the unseen, healing the diseased, and, especially, being born with no father, Christians considered him God. The Holy Prophet insisted that Jesus was a human being—a fact that the Christians could not accept, entering into lots of discussions. Then, the Holy Prophet received this revelation:

Most certainly, they disbelieve who say: Surely, Allah - He is the Messiah, son of Marium. (5:17)

Surely, the likeness of Jesus with Allah is as the likeness of Adam; He created him from dust, then said to him, Be, and he was. This is the truth from your lord, so be not of the disputers. (3:60)

But whoever disputes with you in this matter after what has come to you of knowledge, then say: come to us call our sons and your sons and our women and your women and our near people and your near people, then let us be earnest in prayer, and pray for the curse of Allah on the liars. (3:61)

After the revelation of these verses, the Holy Prophet said, “God has ordered me to do mutual cursing with you if you do not become Muslims.”[^121] They replied, “We have to think about it.” Then, they went back and started counseling. The bishop warned them that Muhammad was God's Messenger and that to accept mutual cursing with him would bring about chastisement of God for them. However, they did not agree; rather, they insisted on mutual cursing (Mubahalah).

They decided that the next day would be the date of Mubahalah. Then, the bishop said, “Look and wait to see how Muhammad attends the session; avoid taking part in it if he accompany his family members with him, because this means that he believes in what he says or else he would not endanger the lives of his near relatives. However, if he comes with his followers, then take part and you will know that his claims are baseless.”[^122]

The following day, the Holy Prophet came with `Ali, Fatimah, Hasan, and Husayn.[^123] Looking at the Holy Prophet's company, the bishop asked, “Who are these?” He was told, “This is his cousin, the woman is his daughter and these two are her sons.”[^124] The bishop told his followers, “These are persons who if they ask God to cut a mountain, the mountain shall certainly be cut off. Do not enter in it lest you will be destroyed and there will remain no Christian on the earth.” The group dispensed with the mutual cursing[^125] and, on terms of a treaty, they had to pay tax.[^126]