History of Western Philosophy

4.3 Modern Philosophy : Continental Rationalism

Together, Continental rationalism and British empiricism may be said to mark the beginning of the "true period of modern philosophy."

**4.3.1 Ren Descartes [1598-1650]

4.3.1.1 Descartes problem**

[Like Bacon] Descartes sets his face against old authorities and emphasized the practical character of philosophy and [unlike Bacon] he took mathematics as the model of his philosophical methodhe offers a program of human knowledge and sought to construct a system of thought which would possess the certainty of mathematics.

He was in agreement with the great natural scientists of the new era: everything in [external] nature must be explained mechanically without forms or essences, but he also accepted the fundamental principles of the time-honored idealistic philosophy and attempted to adapt them to the demands of the new science: his problem was to reconcile the mechanism of nature with the freedom of the human soul.

4.3.1.2 Classification of the sciences

[^1] The first part of true philosophy is metaphysics, which contains principles of knowledge what came to be called epistemology, such as the definition and principle attributes of God, immortality of the soul, and of all the clear and simple ideas that we possess; [^2] physics, true principles of material things, structure and origin of the universe, nature of the earth, of plants, animals and man.

4.3.1.3 Method and criterion of knowledge

Aim: to find a body of certain and self-evident truths. The method of mathematics is a key: begin with axioms which are self-evident, then deduce logical consequencesThis method must be extended to philosophy. Descartes combs through the elements and levels of knowledge, examines and mathematics and pure physics possible? The parallel question regarding metaphysical knowledge cannot be asked in quite the same way because Kant holds metaphysics suspect.

Knowledge presupposes a mind

Sensitivity furnishes us with the sense qualities which are the constituents of perceptual objects. These perceptual objects must also be thought, understood or conceived by the understanding the concepts of the understanding play their indispensable role in knowledge"Percepts and concepts constitute the elements of all our knowledge." Percepts without concepts are blind, concepts without percepts are emptyothers interlaced through this period.

Realism of Hebart:

Reality is absolutely self-consistent

Realistic philosophy, metaphysics and psychology, science of values [not dealing with reality, but with values]

His greatest influence was in education: ends are ethics: instruction, apperception, interest are important in education