History of Western Philosophy

Function: Method of Obtaining Logic: the Science of Sciences

Theme: analysis of form and content of thought. Scientific truth is characterized by strict necessity: to establish a scientific proposition it must be proved that it could not possibly be otherwise.

Demonstration: the form of thought: propositions from propositions: the syllogism.

Intuition or induction: establishment of primary propositions. Intuition is the apprehension of the universal element in the particular: or induction.

Content: the doctrine of the categories [also part of his metaphysics]: categories are the fundamental, indivisible concepts of thought: the most fundamental and universal predicates that can be affirmed of anything, not mere forms of thought or language but also predicates of realitythe ten categories [^1] what [e.g., man: substance], [^2] how it is constituted [e.g., white: quality], [^3] how large [quantity], [^4] relation [double, greater], [^5] where [space], [^6] when [time], [^7] posture, [^8] condition [e.g., armed: state], [^9] activity [what it does], [^10] what it suffers [what is done to it].

2.3.2.4 Metaphysics

Substance [that which exists], abstractly defined in metaphysics, is a key conceptand is in sharp contrast to the Platonic notion. In rejecting the Platonic theory of ideas, Aristotle offers two broad criticisms [seven actual items]: [^1] ideas, though intended to explain the nature of things, are not adequate to do so, and [^1] the relation between things and ideas is inexplicable [and even somewhat contradictory leading to a regress: the idea of the relation, the idea of the idea of].

In contrast to Plato who held that things were incomplete copies of universals [the form is the substance] and in contradiction to the atomism of Democritus, Aristotle regards particular objects as real substances, but the essence of a thing is its form: the class to which it belongs.

There is plurality of substances, hierarchically arranged: indeterminate matterphysical objectsplantsanimalsmanGod.

The process of becoming, or change: the substratum [matter] persists and changes, governed by forms [qualities] which are responsible for diversity and change.

Related to the relationship of form to matter is the relationship of potentiality to actuality: the stages in development: [acorn / oak : materials / building corresponds to potential / actual]the series from potential to actual is, progressively, realization of form over matterForm realizes itself in the thing: it causes the thing to move and to realize an end or purpose.

[Aristotle has been called the "father of Biology"Plato of "Physics".].

2.3.2.5 Four causes

[^1] Material [constituents], [^2] formal [structure], [^3] efficient or moving [the producer', [^4] the final cause [end or purpose]

Everything is explicable, at the same time, by all four causes. In nature causes 2 and 4 coincide as do 2 and 3, so the only causes are form and matter.

2.3.2.6 Theology

Eternal motion on the part of matter presupposes an eternal unmoved mover: God: the cosmological argumentGod is pure form, unadulterated by mater, complete actuality, substance par excellence, thought-thinking-thought [which has been ridiculed on account of its inadequacies]

2.3.2.7 Physics

Science of bodies and motion: motion is change: matter is dynamic, atomism rejected [empty space is rejected]four kinds of motion: [^1] substantial [origin and decay], [^2] qualitative, [^3] quantitative, [^4] local [place]. Qualities are things: there are, therefore, absolute qualitative changes in matternature is teleological and qualitative.

2.3.2.8 Biology

Aristotle may be called the founder of systematic and comparative zoology which he subordinates to the teleologic, dynamic, qualitative interpretation. Aristotle's biology may be described as vitalism: it posits an animating and directing vital principle in organisms.

2.3.2.9 Psychology

Man is the microcosm and the final goal of nature, distinguished from all other living beings by the possession of reasonMan's soul is like the plant soul: lower vital function, and animal soul: perception, common sense, imagination, memory, pleasure, pain. [Pleasure arises when functions are furthered, pain when they are impeded; these feelings arouse desire and aversion which alone cause the body the move.] Desire with deliberation is called rational will.

Besides the foregoing function the human soul possesses the power of conceptual thought, or thinking the universal and necessary essences of things. Reason comes to think concepts as follows: creative reason is pure actuality, the essences are directly cognized: thought and object are here one [in passive reason concepts are merely potential], passive reason is the mater on which creative reason, the form, actsthee is a distinction formal and material phases of reason.

Perception, imagination, memory are connected with the body and perish with it: creative reason is absolutely imperishable, absolutely immaterial

2.3.2.10 Ethics

[Aristotle's ethics are based in his metaphysics and psychology and is the first comprehensive scientific theory of moralityit attempts to give a define answer to the Socratic question of the highest good.]

All human action has some end in viewwhat is the highest end or good? For man this must be his essence: the life of reason, the complete and habitual exercise of the functions which make him human: eudaemonia [happiness is a substitute provided it does not mean pleasure]

A virtuous soul is a well-ordered souland since the soul does not consist of reason alone, it is one in which the right relation exists between reason, feeling and desire.

The highest good for man is self-realization [:not selfish individualism] he realizes his true self when he loves the supreme part of his being: the rational partwhen he is moved by a motive of nobleness, promotes the interests of others and of country"The virtuous man will act often in the interest of friends, country and if need be die for themsurrender money, honour and all the goods for which the world contends, reserving only nobleness for himself".

Justice is a virtue implying a relation to others, for it promotes the interest of othersit is taken in two senses: lawfulness and fairnessNor is the happiness-theory understood in the hedonistic sense a pleasure theory: therefore, all things which are honorable and pleasant to the virtuous man are honorable and pleasant.

Aristotle rejects the Socratic maxim that knowledge is virtue: we must in addition to a knowledge of virtue, endeavor to possess and exercise itMoral action is fostered by a moral societyLaws are required to teach us the duties of lifeThe state should seek to provide a social environs conducive to the morality of its citizensAnyone who wishes to elevate the people must acquaint himself with the principles of legislationtherefore: ethics and politics are never divorced by Aristotle: the moral ends of man are promoted by legal and political means.

2.3.2.11 Politics

Man is a social being who can realize his true self only in society and the statethe state as the goal of evolution of human life is prior in worth and significance to its component societiesSocial life is the goal or end of human existencethe aim of the state is to produce good citizensAristotle was perhaps even more successful than Plato in steering a middle course between "statism" and individual.

The constitution of the state must be adapted to the character and requirements of its people. It is just when it confers equal rights on the people in so far as they are equal, and unequal rights in so far as they are unequal.

There are good constitutions: the monarchy, the aristocracy and the polity a norm in which the citizens are nearly equal and bad forms: the tyranny, oligarchy and democracyAs the best state for his own time Aristotle advocates a city-state in which only those citizens who are qualified by education and by position in life participate actively in government that is, an aristocracy. He justifies slavery on the grounds that it is a rational institution: it is just that the inferior foreigners should not enjoy the same rights as the Greeks.

Aristotle's Genius and Influence: Aristotle's claim to the title "master of those who know" can easily be substantiated. He occupies a unique position in philosophy by whatever standard we judge him, breadth of learning, originality, or influenceAristotle's philosophy is perhaps the most comprehensive synthesis of knowledge ever achieved by the mind of a human being with the possible exception of Hegel.

His genius is his ability to use an enormous amount of knowledge into a unified whole: which he achieves by means of certain integrating concepts: substance, matter, form, actuality, potentiality, etc.

His influence was greatest during the Middle Ages but it is also apparent in the greatest systems of the modern period including those of Descartes, Leibniz and Hegel.