Philosophy Of Islam
Man
** **
The scholastic philosophy gave the place of man to a God conceived by
the medieval Church, which was inspired by the ancient Greek views in
respect of their gods and mixed this conception with some religious
myths. The Greek gods had a hostile relation with man and were
considered to be apprehensive of man's gaining access to the Holy Fire
and acquiring knowledge and power. They regarded man as their rival on
the earth, who should be checked by any means possible.
The lords of the species, which were believed to be controlling the
forces of nature were afraid lest man should overcome these forces and
should subdue nature.
The story of Adam's Paradise was depicted as an attempt by God to keep
man ignorant. The Forbidden Tree of which man was not supposed to eat,
was represented as the tree of knowledge which man should not approach
so that he might not rise in rivalry with God.
Furthermore, Adam's disobedience was believed to be an eternal sin and
a total depravity of human nature. At last for the salvation of man and
his deliverance from his original sin, God Himself had to appear in the
body of Jesus Christ through the Holy Ghost. Thus spirituality became
the speciality of the successors of Jesus and the churchmen.
From this point of view man is a despicable sinner. Only the
ecclesiastical ministers deserve divine blessing. The key of the hidden
treasures being in their hand, one must approach them for one's
salvation.
Knowledge became confined to the Christian doctrines and all
intellectual faculties were devoted to the discussion and interpretation
of the religious texts. Virtue lay in the attachment to the organization
of the established church.
Man believed to be deprived of divine grace, became a captive in the
hand of the custodians of the sanctuary of the son of God. As he had
lost everything, man was compelled to surrender himself submissively.
In this process what totally disappeared was his self‑respect. This was
the position of man in the West prior to Renaissance.
Appearance of New Humanism
Naturally this situation had a reaction. Renaissance began as a revolt
against the existing conception of God and brought about the re‑birth of
man. Humanism took roots in a new form and tried to emancipate man from
the bondage of the God which was imposed on him. But alas! The
emancipated man was put into the clutches of new human gods and was
placed under a new bondage, that is to say mechanism, expansion and
diversification of consumption and a race of exploitation and making
profit.
The way of thinking was freed from the shackles of medieval doctrines.
Sciences flourished, but they all were harnessed to serve the cause of
the enhancement of production and exploitation.
As all restraints were removed and stress was laid on complete freedom,
man was given to libertinism and permissiveness and his life became
meaningless (as is the case with Western Liberalism).
Again `man' has been forgotten, and the question still remains: What
is man? What should he be? What should he do to remain a man and attain
human perfection?
Man from the Qur'anic point of view
The story of Adam as portrayed in the Qur'an shows that in the course of
his material development and physiological changes,[^1] man reached a
stage where he obtained a new birth[^2] with the infusion of the Divine
spirit.[^3] Then in the course of his normal development, he suddenly
experienced a divine change as the result of which he was transformed
into such a super being[^4] that even the angels were asked to pay
obeisance[^5] and the world forces were made subservient, to him.
The Forbidden Tree of Paradise is not that of knowledge which should
not be approached, but it is a tree of lust which should be controlled.
It is a means by which man tests his will‑power and the power of
self‑control. Even man's disobedience is a symbol of the freedom granted
to him by Allah.
To have access to `knowledge' is not forbidden to him: In fact, it is
a gift with which he has been especially blessed. Allah taught him that
which none else knew.[^6] Knowledge is one of the factors by which man
gained superiority over the angels.[^7]
Even Adam's expulsion from Paradise was a forerunner of a sort of
self‑sufficiency, the blooming of his talents and the beginning of his
creative struggle.[^8] It was a stage preliminary to his self‑making.
Though `fall' came in the wake of disobedience, but it did not
culminate in condemnation and permanent contempt. As the result of
seeking forgiveness and attaining self‑consciousness, it became a matter
of blessing.[^9]
Man's relation with Allah is not that of hostility or rivalry, for
Allah is Self‑sufficient and All‑powerful. Even if all men disobey him,
He is going to lose nothing.[^10] He is far away from jealousy and any
kind of anxiety. Therefore man cannot place any restraint on Him through
his disobedience. Man's disobedience is only a manifestation of his
free will and power of choice granted to him by Allah.
Allah appointed man as His vicegerent on the earth,[^11] that is to
say, He gave him authority and power. Not only that, whatever man could
use and could control in the heavens was also subdued to him.[^12]
Allah is not apprehensive of man. He urges him to settle on the
earth[^13] and make use of all the forces hidden in its mountains and
plains.[^14]
Man's domination over land and sea and his control of them is one of
the requirements of his dignity.[^15]
According to the Qur'an man is neither a predestined being[^16] nor has
he been given a free reign to pass an aimless life.[^17]
He has been endowed with many capabilities, dispositions and motives
accompanied by a sort of inner direction[^18] and innate guidance[^19]
which, if not corrupted, will lead him to truth, knowledge,[^20] and all
stages of creative skills, including those of new discoveries based on
previous experience, those of the invention of new tools and equipment
for the expansion of his control of nature and those of increasing his
efficiency in overcoming any hurdles which he may have to face.
Besides that, man is also the bearer of the `Divine trust'[^21]
representing consciousness, will and power of choice, which are the
symbol of his humanity and make him a responsible being. This Divine
trust is that magnificent gift of Allah, which the heavens, the earth
and the mountains were not competent enough to accept. Only man could
bear the responsibility of having the power of conscious choice and free
will.
Range of Man’s Choice and Will
In order to know the conditions, limits and the field of man's choice,
to ascertain the effects of this power on him, and to find out what
factors influence his way of thinking, we must take the following points
into consideration:
(1) Innate nature of man and his disposition
Man has many motives and instincts which pull him towards themselves.
Some of his instincts are derived from a material source, and some
others from a Divine spirit.
You may call these instincts propensity, disposition, natural urge,
tendency or inclination. Some most important of these instincts are as
under:
a. Inclination towards and need of food, clothing and shelter;
b. The instinct of self‑defense;
c. Sexual urge;
d. Aesthetic sense;
e. The instinct of gaining position and respect;
f. The instinct of seeking truth and liking it;
g. Love of knowledge;
h. Love of justice;
i. Fellow‑feeling;
j. Love of perfection and a desire to seek it.
Such instincts and urges are interwoven with the innate nature of
man,[^22] and hence they are not transient and acquired. But still their
existence does not mean that man is a captive of them. These instincts
only bring about a sort of inclination and attraction. They work as a
motive force, but they do not tie the hands of man. Man has the power to
follow or not to follow them. It is within his power to satisfy his
instinctive desires or to restrain them, to supervise and guide them or
to change their direction.
These urges are actually controlled by man's will based on his way of
thinking.
(2) Modification of Propensities
The modification of propensities and instincts is essential, though it
is very difficult and requires a great deal of effort, awareness and
hard work.
It may be easily understood that each of the abovementioned instincts
is in itself a need of life.
Should there be no sexual urge, there shall exist no motive for
procreation and formation of a family.
Should there be no inclination to food, man shall take no steps to meet
his nutritional requirements and consequently he shall perish.
Should man have no desire to gain honor and social position, he shall
succumb to disgrace and humiliation.
A desire to secure position and social respect can impel one to make
fruitful efforts and to do social work etc. But if this very desire
becomes too excessive, it may overcome all other motives and may turn
into a lust for power and position. In that case man begins to worship
the idol of power and becomes a tyrant. He may go to any extent and may
adopt any means, including spending moneymaking flattery and taking any
mean action. In some cases one may even bear hunger and any other
hardships to gain one's selfish ends.
Even after gaining power in order to maintain and enhance it, such a
person may commit any crime ‑ and resort to telling lies, and
intimidating and slaughtering people.[^23]
In other words he may trample upon the high values of justice, realism
and benevolence.[^24]
We observe how one instinct can overpower a man if it is not properly
checked and is allowed to exceed the proper bounds; but we must not
forget that in this case the instinct becomes an idol which man creates
for himself[^25] by misusing his power of choice, and it is he himself
who can break this idol and can promote his higher tendencies. He can
check and reform those instincts which exceed the proper bounds, so that
he may save himself from sinking into sin.
"As for him who repents, believes and does what is right, it is hoped
that be will prosper". (Surah al‑Qasas, 28:67).
** **
"But be who fears the position of his Lord and curbs his base
desires, shall surely dwell in Paradise". (Surah al‑Nazi`at,
79:40‑41).
** **
"Those who are saved from their own greed shall surely be
prosperous". (Surah al‑Hashr, 59:9).
There are many other verses which strongly censure imbalance in
tendencies and declare that the problem should be solved by making
positive efforts to promote higher tendencies.
The Qur'an considers man to be always responsible to make efforts to
reform himself and to guide all his tendencies so that none of them may
exceed its limits and shrivel the freshness of human nature.
(3) Role of natural and geographical environment
It is not possible that the natural and geographical environment of a
man should have no effect on his spiritual and emotional life. Just as
the features and muscles ‑power of all men cannot be the same, similarly
the spirituality of a man who has grown up in the scorching heat of a
desert amidst sand‑dunes cannot be similar to that of another man who
lives in a coastal region having humid climate and dense forests. There
is no doubt that hot climate, salt water, or mountainous region cannot
have the same effect on human tendencies as for instance, cold climate,
sweet water or marshy land has. This is just as the physique of the
people of all regions cannot be the same.
However these varied natural and physical conditions do not compel a
man to go in a particular direction though they may provide him to some
extent a conducive atmosphere to induce him to adopt a certain way of
life. No region compels a man to maintain or lose his self‑respect, to
defend his freedom or succumb to subjugation, to be virtuous or wicked
or to be lazy or industrious.
It is man himself, who in spite of all difficulties and unfavorable
conditions, can find his way and use his will‑power to strengthen his
constructive spirituality.
(4) Role of historical, social and economic factors
The historical factors, social atmosphere, economic relations and social
conditions also play a basic role in giving direction to man's
tendencies, his motives, his outlook and his way of life. Some times
they set up hurdles in the way of man's freedom and his power of
choice.
But we should not forget that the present conditions were brought about
gradually by some people and other people can fight the existing evil
factors under the banner of freedom and knowledge, can add to their
intellectual matureness, and by using what remains of their will and
decision‑making power can fight corruption. This subject will be
discussed further while we deal with the historical outlook of Islam.
(5) Role of the rules and regulations in the field of choice
We have come to know that man has certain tendencies and instincts
which must be guided and modified. As natural factors and environmental
conditions affect his choice and his mode of life, he must take steps to
improve his surroundings and change them for the better. The principles
and rules on the basis of which this modification and improvement should
take place, are one of the most important topics connected with the
question of man's choice and his will.
How should he mould his life and in what direction should he turn
himself? What should he choose and on what basis? Should he allow others
to impose certain principles on him and then of his own accord choose
those very principles and go the way to which he is led in an invisible
manner, as normally is the case in modern democracy?
Or should he allow himself to be involved in an ideological conflict on
the basis of the theory of material compulsion and historical dialectic
as advanced by certain schools of thought, and by bringing about further
contradiction in this process, invigorate the movement and development
of history?
Or should a man, as a principle, free himself from all principles
already enunciated, get rid of his own preconceived ideas, and then
with complete freedom make his choice and create his own principles and
rules, because there exists no principle other than that which one
himself chooses? Or is there any other way out? If so, what is that?
From Islamic point of view, man has been created free from all such
compulsions and no pre‑conceived principle or view can be imposed on him
to deprive him of his free will and power of choice.
Man should himself choose the rules and principles for moulding himself
rightly and to serve his society in the light of his expanded knowledge.
All the emphasis which the Qur'an lays on thinking, understanding and
reasonableness and that too on the thinking free from whims, myths and
the wrong notions prevalant in the environment or inherited from
forefathers, is aimed at paving the way for finding the truth.
(6) Divine revelation
One of the most important sources of knowledge and the domains of
thinking is Divine revelation.
The world is not dark and void. In addition to those inner faculties
with which Allah has provided man in order to help him find the truth,
He has sent Prophets to guide him aright. This guidance does not mean
forced imposition of Allah's will, nor does it mean the suppression of
the creative will of man. It only means a sort of exhortation and Divine
help. It shows kindness and graciousness of Allah. This guidance is a
light which adds to the insight of man and does not restrict his will.
Man should get benefited by this guidance with his eyes wide open, and
for that purpose, he should use his knowledge and insight. He should
first think and evaluate, and only then make his choice. If even after
identifying the truth, he persists in his disbelief, he shall stand
condemned.
In support of these points, there is enough evidence in the Qur'an. We
have already quoted some verses.
(7) Man's own deeds make his destiny
Another question which gives direction to man's will and choice is his
giving attention to the fact that his deeds make his destiny and that
every action of his shall have a reaction sooner or later. Man's future
actually depends on his own deeds.
The Qur'an says:
`Man gets only what be strives for". (Surah al‑Najm, 53:39)
** **
"Corruption has become rife on land and sea because of the misdeeds
of the people". (Surah al‑Rum, 30:41).
** **
It is the resistance of the people which prevents corruption.
* *
"If Allah had not repelled with the might of others, the earth would
have been corrupted". (Surah al‑Baqarah, 2:251).
** **
Paradise and Hell are the outcome and the reflection of the deeds of
the people.
"This is Paradise which you have inherited by your righteous
deeds". (Surah al-Zukhruf, 43:72).
** **
"In fact those who commit evil and are engrossed in their
transgression, shall be consigned to the fire in which they shall
abide". (Surah al‑Baqarah, 2:81).
In fact the deeds of the people are preserved accurately and
carefully.
"These shall have a share of what they have earned. No doubt Allah is
swift at reckoning". (Surah al‑Baqarah, 2:210).
As in this world everything is well‑planned and well‑managed and there
is nothing futile and haphazard, all human deeds have a role and a
constructive effect.
This view makes it very clear that a man has to be very careful while
making his choice. He is not allowed to set his hand to anything
haphazardly and carelessly.
It is also essential that he should choose only what is right. He must
not take a decision light‑heartedly. That is why he is anxious and
apprehensive. Perhaps it is this fear of Allah that leads one to
practical piety.[^26]
(8) Aim of Man's efforts
Now let us see what should be the aim of man's efforts. We know that
Islam proposes certain goals and principles and calls man to adopt them.
This in itself is a blessing of Allah. But it is man himself who should
choose his way thoughtfully.
Prosperity and salvation
According to the Qur'an one of the aims of the efforts of man is to
achieve falah which means salvation and prosperity.
Fallah means the cultivator, who cleaves the land, prepares it for
cultivation and arranges for all the conditions necessary for the growth
and development of seed, which under the favorable conditions of soil
and water shoots forth from land and with the help of natural forces
increases in height and size.
Similarly if man arranges the conditions conducive to his human growth
and perfection in every sphere and all dimensions of his nature, he will
become free from the shackles of selfishness and base desires. He will
be able to take full advantage of his talents and potentialities and his
higher instincts will take a firm root. Such a man is said to have
achieved falah and to have `prospered'. The Qur'an declare that this
prosperity depends on self‑making[^27] modification of natural
urges,[^28] good deeds,[^29] constructive and positive efforts,[^30]
resistance against the evil, co‑operation for the good, piety,[^31]
betterment of the environment, diffusion of virtues, prevention of
corruption[^32] and the like.
(9) Ideals and values
With one evolutionary jump man begins co hold an ideal for the sake of
which he forgets himself, concentrating his attention on faith and the
service of humanity. A stage comes when for the realization of his ideal
he not only forsakes his pleasures and comforts, and his position and
wealth, but even lays down his life.
A scientist makes sincere efforts to make a discovery, not to serve a
tyrant or to get fame or secure a reward, but to add to knowledge and to
serve humanity.
A sincere social worker makes efforts for the treatment of the sick for
helping the afflicted and the hungry and for defending the oppressed,
not for the sake of any reward or publicity and not in a just formal or
a professional way, but for the sake of humanity and service.
An ideological worker faces all sorts of hardships and dangers and
makes sacrifices for the deliverance of a nation. What name will you
give to such a man and how will you interpret his working for an
ideal?
There is no harm if you call him an idealist, for what he strives for,
does not already exist as a reality, neither in nature nor in society.
He only perceives it as an ideal in his mind and makes it a part of his
life. This ideal becomes a driving force which moves him to continue his
efforts till what was a mere idea, is realized and becomes a historical
fact.
Every ideological school must have an ideal, which though does not
already exist as a reality, but sacrifice should be made to achieve it.
This is a thing which no theory of material compulsion can explain. It
cannot be judged by any scientific standard, nor can it be interpreted
by any material or natural law.
These very ideals are the high values to which one should dedicate
himself and for the sake of which one should make sacrifice. If you want
to find a person who really possesses `human' qualities, you should
look for one who is dedicated to these ideals and values, which are
beyond the scope of physiological and biological laws.
(10) Seeking Allah and Truth
Islam maintains that these values in their highest form are concentrated
in Allah, and the man of Islam is enamoured of this absolute perfection.
He is fit to yearn for and move towards the source of all virtues and
values. A man having a perfect faith actually moves towards this goal.
This absolute perfection is a pure reality and the essence of existence,
which has created values and power. This truth cannot be perceived by
material thinking, which cannot go beyond matter and energy and cannot
think of reality and value or the source of power and motion.
As far as man is concerned, it is he himself who begins his move
towards perfection, though he is invited and attracted towards it by
Allah, but not to the extent of compulsion and imposition, for in that
case his move will have no value. He himself is responsible to make the
journey with untiring efforts to reach his goal. How encouraging this
promise is!
`Man, strive hard to get closer to your Lord, and so you will
certainly receive the recompense (of your
deeds**)**': (Surah al‑Inshiqaq, 84:6).
Man from the View Point of Existentialism
As existentialism is one of the most well‑known contemporary schools of
philosophy which has devoted much of its attention to man, we must study
its doctrines in order to have a clear idea about the prevalent theories
about man. For this purpose we propose first to reproduce some of the
views of the thinkers and the commentators of this school and then to
make our comments on them:
Existence of man precedes his essence, and hence, firstly there exists
no purpose, plan or destiny concerning him prior to the emergence of
his personality or his existence; and secondly, as free agents we can
choose and change our essence at will. Jean Paul Sartre
I emerge alone and faced by the commotions and anxieties go forward and
backward. That is what gives shape to my existence. It is I who can
overcome all hurdles and provide value to my existence. Nothing other
than me can give satisfaction to me. I have severed my relations with
the world. I fight my own basis, that is the non‑existence, which I am
myself. It is my duty to bestow reality on the meaning of the world and
of myself. I alone take a decision. Principles of the Philosophy of
Existentialism
As far as `disappointment' is concerned, that means that we confine
ourselves to depending on what is within our will or within the total
possibilities, which make our action possible. We sever our relations
with everything else and cherish no hope. When Rene Descartes said:
"Subdue yourself, not the world", he actually meant that we should work
without cherishing a hope. Sartre
The conception of man is synonymous with a mixture of anxiety and
encouragement. When a man makes a commitment and determines that by his
action he is not only deciding about himself and choosing what he shall
be, but is also giving a law for all mankind, at that moment he cannot
avoid feeling complete and deep responsibility. Sartre
Those who bear such a responsibility as that of a military commander
who undertakes to launch an attack, know well the anxiety with which we
are concerned. Sartre
In respect of `bad intention' and `self deception', which must be
avoided, Sartre says:
As the human beings are free and independent beings and they themselves
invent their moral standards, the only thing which they may be asked to
do is to be loyal to their own standards and values.
The assertion that man is a free agent, necessarily means that human
beings are not a plaything in the hands of gods or any power other than
themselves. They have absolute freedom, and are `released',
`independent', not interrelated and `not interconnected'. In short,
`they axe what they axe'.
Quoting Dostoyevsky, who wrote: "If God did not exist, everything would
have been permissible", Sartre says: This is the starting point of this
school. Really if God does not exist, everything is permissible.
Consequently man feels dejected, for he finds nothing to depend upon
either within himself or outside himself.
Man is condemned to be free. I say "Condemned", because he has not
created himself. Still he is free, and from the moment he is dropped
into this world, he is responsible for all his actions.
In respect of the views of this school in regard to man, the following
points may be deduced from what has been cited above:
(1) In contrast to other natural beings which have a definite and
ready‑made essence, man has no particular essence. His essence is that
which he makes himself.
(2) Man is a free agent and has power of choice.
(3) No will, principle or law restricts the range of man's freedom.
(4) It is man himself who is responsible for his own making. His
destiny rests exclusively on his personal choice. He is also responsible
for making his social environment and bringing about changes in his
natural surroundings, and that too on the basis of the principles which
he formulates himself.
(5) For this very reason he is always agitated and he feels uneasy
because he can have no guidance or support from outside and the choice
he makes is not easy.
(6) Man feels lonely and detatched from everything. As he has to depend
on himself alone, he feels disappointed.
(7) The uneasiness and constructive `disappointment' that induce him
to `action', are like everything else the outcome of his own
`action'.
As for the belief in God, it may be said that this philosophy does not
necessarily amount to atheism.
Sartre says:
There are two types of the existentialists. On the one hand there are
Christian existentialists, among whom I name Karl Jaspers and Gabriel
Marcel, both of whom confess to be Catholics. On the other hand, there
are existentialists, who are atheists, like Martin Heidegger and I. The
only thing common between these two types of individuals is that they
generally believe that existence of man precedes his essence.
At another place Sartre says:
In the philosophy of existentialism the conception of atheism does not
involve the denial of the Creator. It only means that nothing would be
upset even if the Creator did not exist. Man should himself find out and
know that no means of his deliverance exist anywhere.
He again says:
If the existentialist is greatly disturbed at the idea of the
non‑existence of God, that is because in that case the possibility of
finding `values' in perceptible Paradise disappears totally. Further,
obviously no virtue can exist, for no conscience is so perfect and
infinite that it should think of every virtue. It is not written
anywhere that the virtue has a definite existence and is always judged
rightly.
We observe that the existentialists who hold atheistic views do so
because they imagine that man can have absolute freedom only if there is
no outside `will' behind him to determine his action.
Sometimes they expressly say: Should there be a God who destines
everything or at least knows everything, all future events will
necessarily take place as anticipated by Him. For this reason the denial
of an Almighty Creator is a logical pre‑condition of the absolute
freedom of man.
We propose to analyse this point while making a comparative study of
Islamic and existentialist view‑points.
Man from the View Point of Islam
Taking into consideration what we have already said concerning man and
the range of his will and choice, we can come to certain conclusions.
Here we briefly refer to some of the principles only. While doing so, we
will try to touch upon the basic views of the Existentialist School in
order to make clear the questions under consideration:
(1) Essence of man (what he has and what he himself should make)
Man has an inborn essence. He has a nature which is terrestrial and
celestial at the same time. He has various tendencies and instincts and
various capabilities and desires. But he has to develop his individual
essence through his personal efforts and will. His tendencies and
talents provide a ground on which he has to build his essence and decide
what he should be.
(2) Human freedom and Divine destiny
Man is a free agent, but this freedom has been given to him by Allah. In
the words of some contemporary writers, man is destined to be free.
No school of thought asserts that it is man himself who has given
freedom to him. All agree that freedom has been given to him and imposed
on him from outside. If it is so, why should we not admit that it has
been bestowed on him by Allah[^33] and it is a Divine gift.
It may be said that such a belief leads to predetermination, which
amounts to the negation of man's freedom and his free will.
We know that according to the religious outlook, if there exists any
Divine compulsion in respect of man, that compulsion is in regard to his
having volition and freedom, and if there is any predetermination by
Allah, that means that man should exercise his choice with consciousness
and freedom. Hence divine will necessarily implies the freedom of man
and not his predestination.
(3) Sphere of choice and role of guidance
We know that natural urges, Divine guidance and even environmental
conditions affect man's choice and his freedom. But their role is not
compelling. They only create a tendency and pave the way for taking
action. It is always man's own free will which gives a definite shape to
these tendencies and modifies them. It is up to him to identify the
truth and take advantage of the guidance with insight. We have already
said that Divine revelation is a guidance which is enlightening,
instructive and helpful. It is a blessing of Allah which guides man to
the right path.
(4) Man has a purpose
We have already stated that the universe has not been created without a
purpose and in vain. Man and life also cannot be without a purpose. He
has been created to make an evolutionary progress in all the dimensions
of his existence and ultimately to make a journey towards Absolute
Perfection (as we have stated earlier).
(5) Man is responsible
It is man who is responsible to make himself and his environment. But
responsible to whom?
Some schools of thought give no answer to this question, for they
maintain that beyond man there is no conscious authority to question
him. But in Islam there exists a responsibility and that too towards the
Almighty, the Wise and the All‑knowing, who will call every one to
account, and recompense him.
The holy Qur'an says:
**"**You will indeed be questioned about what you used to do" .
(Surahal‑Nahl, 16:93).
*** ***
"By Allah! You shall indeed be called to account for what you have
been forging". (Surah al‑Nahl, 16:56).
*** ***
`Detain them for they are to be interrogated". (Surah
al‑Saffat, 37: 24).
** **
`Allah cannot be questioned as to what He does, but they will be
questioned". (Surah al‑Anbiya, 21:23).
Such a responsibility can produce a great effect, and may work as an
incentive.
(6) Vigilance and anxiety
A man who has received training in Islamic ways, is vigilant. In other
words he feels anxious and uneasy, because he is responsible for making
the right choice. He is responsible for his salvation, for his
well‑being and for the well‑being of his society. Similarly he is
accountable for his fall and his decadence. Every action of his is
lasting and produces a result. Therefore this anxiety and vigilance axe
constructive, add to his responsibility and affect his choice.
(7) Man is not without a refuge
In Islam man's free will does not mean that he has no refuge and that he
has to depend on himself alone totally. He is blessed with Divine
protection and favor. If he makes effort and moves in the right
direction, he receives Allah's help.[^34] He is not alone; Allah is with
him.[^35] You may say that everything is in the hand of man. If he
really establishes relation with Allah, the doors of clear thinking,
knowledge and power are opened to him.[^36] He feels encouraged and a
spirit of new zeal is infused in him.
(8) Self‑dependence, fear and hope
Islam recognizes a particular sort of `disappointment'. One must not
depend on the deeds of others.[^37] Family position, children and wealth
can save none.[^38] Everyone is self‑made and has to depend on his own
deeds.
Thus man is a mixture of fear and hope,[^39] and yearning and
apprehension. His fear is such that it saves him from making mistakes
and falling into sin. It is not that kind of fear which may. frustrate
him and lead him to inertness.
His hope inspires him to good deeds and renders him neither haughty and
selfish nor lazy and sluggish.
View Point of Dialectical Materialism
According to this philosophical theory it is society, which has the main
importance. Man is studied only as a part of society, the laws of whose
development originate from the dialectical law which is supposed to
govern nature. As such, in order to be able to know the views of this
philosophical school concerning man, we have to study the basic
principles of dialectical materialism in regard to nature and society.
Here again we first reproduce some of the views of the exponents of this
school. Thereafter we shall describe the point of view of Islam in
regard to them.
(1) Nature does not consist of things heaped together or events
detached from each other. It is a collection of things and events which
are interrelated. No natural phenomenon can be understood and studied in
isolation from other natural events and their environment.
(2) Nature is not static and at rest. It is in a state of motion and
continuous change. Every moment something emerges, changes and evolves,
and something else is annihilated.
(3) The developmental movement of things is not a simple movement of
growth. It is a development in which slight and hidden changes are
suddenly and speedily transformed into open and basic qualitative
changes, of inevitable and unavoidable character. The developmental
movement is not a circular movement, nor is it a simple repetition of
anything. It is a forward movement, and a shifting from an old
qualitative state to a new qualitative state. This movement is from
below to above.
(4) All things and all natural events contain an inner contradiction.
The previously existing thesis comes in conflict with an antithesis
produced by it. Their conflict produces a new synthesis, which in turn
rises in conflict with another antithesis that emerges from within it.
Thus the way for evolution is paved. According to this theory, all
developments originate from this very inner contradiction.
Now let us see what this school says about man and society and how it
interprets history.
(5) Man is a material and natural being, whose brain and nervous system
are more developed than those of all other animals, and because of this
evolution he enjoys a better power of understanding and grasping.
It is society which has real importance. Individual man is a weak being
whose efforts are confronted with failure. It is society which grants
will to him. Man minus society is prone to make too many mistakes and is
always in danger of utter destruction.
(6) As the material world exists independently of human perception and
thinking, the material existence of man and the material life of society
are more important than their intellectual life, which is only a
secondary element derived from the material life. Even the perception
and the thinking of the people are only a reflection of the material
world.
(7) The means and methods of production constitute the life of society.
At various stages of the development of society the methods of
production and the appliances used in this connection differ. The people
in the primitive social system have one method of production and in the
slave‑holding system another. Similarly in the feudal system the method
and the appliances used are different.
And so on and so forth. As the methods of production change, the social
system of the people, their intellectual life, their views and their
political organizations also undergo a change.
(8) The main motive force of history is the change in the means and the
methods of production, which brings about a contradiction with the old
productive relationships. As a result of this conflict and
contradiction the productive relationship are changed.
In every period of history the economic and social system which was
forced by such a change, has constituted the political and intellectual
history of that period. Consequently since the ownership of land
displaced the primitive social system, history has been mainly a record
of class war between the oppressors and the oppressed and the rulers and
the ruled. It is this contradiction and conflict which brought about the
various stages of the evolution of society.
(9) According to the views of this school, history comprises five
periods which successively displace each other. They are the periods
of:
(1) Primitive socialism, (2) Slavery, (3) Feudalism, (4) Capitalism,
and lastly (5) Socialism leading to Communism
(10) In respect of the role of the new ideas in bringing about a change
in society, this school says:
The new social ideas and the new social theories appear only when a
change in the material life of society creates new duties towards
society. As the new ideas develop, they turn into a power which
facilitates the discharge of the new duties and enables society to make
progress. As every change is caused by contradiction, the contradiction
within society should be intensified so that the solution of the
problems facing society may be found. It is contradiction only that
introduces new ideas and new theories which help to solve the existing
problems.
Islam's approach to these questions
As for the points raised in the first four paragraphs, we have discussed
them in detail in the preceding chapters of this book. Anyhow, to
maintain continuity, here again we refer to them briefly:
(1) There is no doubt that there exists a definite coherence and
harmony in the universe, and all the elements and phenomena of nature
are minutely interrelated. That is why it is not possible to have an
accurate and full knowledge of any single natural phenomenon without
having a knowledge of all the elements which form it and all the causes
and factors which affect it, and similarly without having a knowledge of
its relationships and its evolutionary tendency.
(2) All the natural phenomena are ceaselessly and uninterruptedly in a
state of motion. No material element and no natural phenomenon is static
and at rest. Change and evolution, growth and decay, life and death and
transformation and transfiguration are the patterns by which matter is
governed.
(3) On the whole this movement is evolutionary and progressive. It is
purposive, well‑calculated and wellorganized. Generally speaking, the
net result of this movement of the world and its phenomena is growth,
development, resistance against anti‑evolutionary factors and
utilization of positive factors for evolutionary progress and a change
for the better.
(4) This motion and this transformation have certain characteristics
and produce certain effects in accordance with the laws concerning
matter and nature. These laws affect every material thing from within
and without, and influence its relationship with other phenomena. This
influence may be either in the form of contradiction and conflict or in
the form of harmony and agreement, or simply in the form of preserving
the existence and growth of the thing concerned.
The sum total of these laws and relationships constitutes the Divine
ways, the creative design and the judicious will of Allah. As we shall
see, these Divine ways operate in nature and society ceaselessly and
uninterruptedly.
Now we come to the main feature of our discussion relating to man and
society. The Islamic point of view in this respect may be summarized as
under:‑
(5) Man is a part of nature, having material and natural
characteristics. But he has reached such a stage of evolution that he
has become fit for being gifted with Divine spirit and supernatural
values. Consequently he has acquired the faculties of free will,
knowledge and responsibility. Because of these gifts, he is not
subservient to the material phenomena nor bound by the genetic
relationships. In contrast, he is capable of subduing nature and
bringing about changes in material relationships and natural
phenomena.
(6) Man, as we know, despite his being an integral part of society, is
an independent being. He is not so subservient to society that he should
have no personal will, freedom and the right of choice. His conduct is
not determined by society and history only, though he cannot be regarded
as being apart from society.
(7) As the entire existence of man is not the direct result of the
evolution of matter, his mental and intellectual life cannot be purely
inspired by and derived from matter or from material and genetic
relationships of society. Nevertheless, as he is embedded in matter and
has emerged out of it, the natural, geographical and physical conditions
and the material relationship of society are bound to affect him.
(8) The contradiction which exists within man is the outcome of the
conflict between his material yearnings (human desires) and his
celestial impulses (inspirations from beyond this world). As man is
endowed with freedom and knowledge, he should make the best use of this
contradiction, and should take steps to modify all his impulses and to
guide them towards his own evolution, the betterment of his
surroundings, the making of history and moving it forward.
While discussing dialectical materialism, we reproduced certain views
having a direct bearing on the historical conception of this school.
Hence it will be in the fitness of things to study also the Islamic
conception of history and the factors which make and move it. We propose
to discuss this question in a comprehensive manner.
"They fear their Lord and dread the evil consequences of the
Reckoning". (Surah al‑Ra'd, 13:21).
[^1]: "We created you from clay, then from a living germ, then from a clot of blood and then from a lump of flesh ". (Surah al‑Hajj, 22:5)
[^2]: " . . . . . . . . Then from it We produced anew being". (Surah al‑Mo'minun, 23:14).
[^3]: "He completed him and breathed His spirit into him ". (Surah al‑Sajdah, 32:9).
[^4]: "Indeed We have honored the children of Adam and have definitely given them superiority above many of Our creatures": (Surah al‑Isra, 17:70).
[^5]: "When I have completed him and breathed My spirit into him, then fall prostrate before him" : (SurahSad, 38:72).
[^6]: "He taught man what he did not know ". (Surah al‑Alaq, 96:5)
[^7]: "He taught Adam all the names, then He presented those (things) to the angels ….(Surahal‑Baqarah, 2:31).
[^8]: "The earth will provide you dwelling and sustenance for an appointed time". (Surah al‑A'raf, 7:24).
[^9]: "Adam acted contrary to the counsel of his Lord and thus he erred. Thereafter his Lord forgave him. He accepted his repentance and rightly guided him ". (Surah Taha, 20:121 ‑ 122).
[^10]: “If you all those who are on the earth prove to be ungrateful, Allah does not at all need your thanks. He is Laudable". (Surah Ibrahim, 14:8).
[^11]: “When your Lord said to the angels: I am appointing on earth a vicegerent": (Surah al‑Baqarah, 2:30).
[^12]: "Have you not seen that Allah has put at your service whatever there a in the heavens and the earth". (Surah Luqman, 31:20).
[^13]: "He produced you from the earth and settled you there": (Surah Hud, 11:61).
[^14]: 'It is He who has made the earth subservient to you. So walk about in its regions and eat what Allah has produced". (Surah al‑Mulk, 67:15).
[^15]: "Indeed We have honored the children of Adam. We carry them on the land and the sea ". (Surah al‑Isra, 17:70).
[^16]: "Does man think that be will be left unchecked". (Surah al‑Qiyamah, 75:36).
[^17]: "Did you think We have created you in vain and that you would never be returned to Us?" (Surah al‑Mo'minun, 23:115).
[^18]: “Indeed We have created man from the union of sperm and egg, to test him. We gave him the faculties of bearing and seeing". (Surah al‑Dahr, 76:2).
[^19]: "By the soul and its Creator who inspired it as to what is right and what is wrong for it". (Surah al‑Shams, 91:7 ‑ 8).
[^20]: "Follow the dictates of (true) human nature as created by Allah. Allah's creation is not to be changed. This is surely the upright religion". (Surah al‑Rum, 30:30).
[^21]: "We offered the trust to the heavens, the earth and the mountains, but they declined to bear it and were afraid of it. And man undertook to bear it . . . . . . . ". (Surahal‑Ahzab,‑33:72)
[^22]: "Follow the dictates of (true) human nature as created by Allah" : (Surahal‑Rum, 30:30). "Surely man was created restless". (Surah al‑Ma'arij, 70:19). "Alluring for people is the love of the joys that come from women, sons, hoarded heaps of gold and silver, horses of mark, cattle and plantations ". (Surah Ale Imran 3 :14). "He is passionate in his love for wealth ". (Surah al‑Adiyat, 100: 8).
[^23]: "Look! Indeed man rebels, when he considers himself to be independent and self sufficient". (Surah al‑Alaq, 96:5 ‑ 6).
[^24]: "Judge rightly between people and do not follow your own caprices, which will deviate you from the path of Allah". (SurahSad, 38:26).
[^25]: "If we give him a taste of affluence after adversity that had befallen, he says: My bad days are over, and becomes proud and insolent; except those who are steadfast and do good deeds ". (SurahHud, 11:10).
[^26]: "This is the punishment of which Allah warns His slaves. Therefore, my slaves! Have fear of Me". (Surah al‑Zumar, 39:16).
[^27]: "The prosperous is he who purified himself". (Surah al‑A'la, 87:14).
[^28]: “Those who are saved from their own greed, shall surely be prosperous". (Surah al‑Hashr, 59:9).
[^29]: "Worship Allah, and do good so that you may prosper". (Surah al‑Hajj, 22:77).
[^30]: `Prosperous indeed are the believers, who are humble in their prayers, who keep themselves aloof from what is absurd . . . . . . . ' (Surah Mo'minun, 23:1 ‑ 11).
[^31]: Believers, have patience, help each other with patience, establish good relations with one another and have fear of Allah so that you may prosper". (Surah Ale lmran, 3 :200).
[^32]: ` . . . . They call to virtue, exhort to what is good and restrain from evil. It is such people who shall prosper". (Surah Ale Imran, 3:104).
[^33]: "We offered our Trust . . . . .". (Surah al‑Ahzab, 33:72).
[^34]: "As for those who strive for Our cause We will definitely guide them to Our paths' : (Surahal‑Ankabut, 29:69).
[^35]: "We are closer to him than his jugular vein ". (Surah Qaf, 50:16).
[^36]: "Do not lose heart and do not grieve, for you shall have true dignity, provided you are believers ". (Surah Ale Imran, 3 :139).
[^37]: "No one shall bear the burden of someone else". (Surah al‑Fatir, 35:18).
[^38]: "The Day when wealth and sons will be of no use; and only he who brings a sound heart to Allah (will be profited by it) ". (Surah al‑Shu'ra, 26:89).
[^39]: "None but the disbelieving people despair of His mercy". (Surah Yusuf, 12:87). `My slaves! You have nothing to fear or regret today". (Surah al‑Zukhruf, 43:68). "Who forsake their beds to pray to their Lord in fear and hopes". (Surah al‑Sajdah, 32:16).