SUMMARY

Concept

Processes/Related Ideas

Characteristics/Description

Scope of Religion and Links Between Psychology and Religion

Scope of Religion

There is extensive interest in religion worldwide. Females consistently show a stronger interest in religion than males do.

History of Psychology of Religion

Psychology of religion was a part of the field of psychology from the beginning. William James wrote The Varieties of Religious Experience in 1902. Psychology of religion flourished until the 1930s, then was dormant for about three decades. In the last several decades, renewed interest in the psychology of religion has emerged.

Psychology of Religion and General Psychology

Areas in the psychology of religion and areas in general psychology are linked. For virtually every main topic in general psychology, there is a parallel line of research in the psychology of religion.

Psychological Models and Religion

Psychology of religion draws on a number of psychological models to explain religious concepts. Four such models are the behavioral, psychoanalytic (or psychodynamic), humanistic, and sociocultural.

Defining Religion and Exploring the Psychology of Religion

Defining Religion

Defining religion is an inordinately difficult task, so difficult that there is no universally accepted definition. Batson defined religion in terms of its functional, existential nature. Another definition says that religiousness involves a conscious dependency on a deity or God. In general, we can say that religion is a set of beliefs that individuals adhere to and use as a guide in their personal life. In psychology of religion, an important strategy is to operationally define the aspects of religiousness that are being studied. One issue is whether religion and spirituality are different.

Dimensions of Religious Commitment

The concept of religion is multifaceted and multidimensional. The dimensions of religious commitment include religious belief, religious practice, religious feeling, religious knowledge, and religious effects. Conceptually, it can be useful to combine the dimensions in ways that are psychologically meaningful, such as high and low degrees of belief and knowledge.

The Science-Versus-Religion-Problem

Psychology (like any other science) is not necessarily in conflict with religion. The either/or view of psychology and religion is inaccurate. For the most part, scientists’ views are compatible with, rather than in opposition to, religious teachings. Psychology can neither prove nor disprove religion, but the psychology of religion can tell us much about how religion works in people’s lives.

Religious Orientation

One of the most important concepts that have guided psychology of religion since the 1960s is the concept of intrinsic religious motives (motives within the person) and extrinsic religious motives (using religion for nonreligious ends). The notion that intrinsically religious individuals live their religion while their extrinsic counterparts use it also includes the concept that religion is a master motive in the lives of those who are intrinsically motivated. In actuality, religious orientation is more complicated than a simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Religious Development and Conversion

Religious Development in Children and Adolescents

Many children show an interest in religion, and religious institutions are designed to introduce children to religious beliefs. In many cases, the indoctrination works. Religious issues are important to adolescents, and adolescence may be a special juncture in religious development. Many adolescents incorporate a religious view into their identity development. The cognitive developmental theory of famous Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget provides a backdrop for understanding religious development in children and adolescents. Linkages between religiousness and sexuality occur in adolescence.

Fowler’s Developmental Theory

Fowler proposed a theory of religious development that focuses on the motivation to discover meaning in life, either inside or outside of organized religion. Fowler’s six stages are intuitive-projective faith, mythical-literal faith, synthetic-conventional faith, individuative-reflective faith, conjunctive faith, and universalizing faith.

Religion and Spirituality in Older Adults

Religion plays a special role in the lives of older adults. Many church leaders are elderly adults, and many elderly adults show a strong religiousness. Religion is linked to a sense of well-being among the elderly, and religion can fulfill some important psychological needs in old age.

Religious Conversion

Two types of conversion are sudden and gradual. Another type is lifelong religious socialization. The old view was that religious conversion occurs against a person’s will. The new view is that converts are active and religion-seeking. More cognitively oriented versions of conversion have also been offered.

Religious Experience, Attitudes, Behavior, and Health

Religious Experience

Religious experience can be evaluated in two ways - from the inside or from the outside. Two general classes of factors that facilitate religious experiences are dispositional and situational. Religious orientation is a dispositional factor; taking drugs and floating underwater are situational factors.

Religious Attitudes and Behavior

The grand paradox is that individuals who attend church tend to be more prejudiced than nonchurchgoers. However, Allport found that consistent churchgoers were less prejudiced than sporadic churchgoers. Two lines of research that followed after Allport’s work have focused on quest (high-quest individuals generally are less prejudiced and are less likely to discriminate against ethnic minorities) and means and ends (Pargament argues that religion involves the simultaneous interaction of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation).

Religion and Physical Health

In some cases, religion can be negatively linked to physical health, as when cults or religious sects restrict individuals from obtaining medical care. In mainstream religions, religion usually shows either a positive association or no association with physical health.

Religion and Mental Health

A common stereotype is that religion is a crutch for weak people and that guilt feelings are the reason people become religious. However, religion and mental disorder likely co-occur in only a small number of people. Religion can play an important role in coping, for some individuals. Happy people tend to have a meaningful religious faith, but it is important to remember that the link is correlational, not causal.

Religion and Cults

The Nature of Cults

Cults have been defined in various ways, ranging from dangerous institutions to fringe, often new, religious movements. An all-powerful leader is present in most cults. Many individuals who join cults are in a transitional phase of their lives and cults promise to fulfill most of their needs. Potential for the worse abuse is when the cult is physically and socially isolated from the outside community.