Shi'ism and Its Types During the Early Centuries

Iraqi Shiism

With attention to what has been stated it may be said that in the early Islamic centuries the term Shi'ism (tashayyu') had a wider meaning than is current today.

That which is called tashayyu' today would be referred to in the old jargon of the Uthmanis as Rafd.' In that period the term Shi ah in its general use was applied to those who preferred Imam Ali ('a) to Uthman. In addition those who preferred him to the other two caliphs or basically believed in his Imamate and that of his descendants were also called Shiah.

' In the sense of a general tendency a Shi'ah' was someone who preferred Imam 'Ali to the other caliphs, while a Rafidi' was someone who rejected the caliphate of Abu Bakr and Umar and believed in the Imamate of Imam 'Ali ('a) as something ordained by God. Shiism' in the above sense of a general tendency may be called Iraqi Shi'ism.'

From the Sunni viewpoint, giving preference to Imam Ali ('a) over Uthman has been considered a heretical belief (bid'ah). [^6] Some extreme Sunnis are even of the view that such a preference of the Imam over Uthman is rafd. Hence they have said, Someone who says, "Abu Bakr, Umar, Ali and then Uthman" (in a descending order or merit) is a rafidi or a heretic (mubtadi). [^7]

The people of Kufah were Shi'ah as they accepted this descending order of merit for the caliphs (Ahl al-Kufah yaqulun: Abu Bakr wa 'Umar wa 'Ali).[^8]

It was said about the people of Wasit that they were Shi'ah (kana 'ammatu ahl a-Wasit yatashayyi'un). [^9] It is stated in Masail al-Imamah that the Ahl al-Hadith from among the Kufans, such as Waki' ibn Jarrah and Fadl ibn Dukayn, were Shi'is' because they believed in Ali's merit over Uthman and considered Ali's caliphate to be legitimate (Yaz'amuna anna afdal al-nas bad al-Nabi [s] Abu Bakr thummah 'Umar thumma 'Ali, thumma 'Uthman, yuqaddimuna Aliyan 'ala 'Uthman wa hadha tashayyu' ashab al-hadith min al-Kufiyyin wa yuthbituna imamata 'Ali).

As against this viewpoint was that of the Ahl al-Hadith of Basrah who preferred Uthman to Imam Ali, followed by the rest of the participants of the council (shura) constituted by 'Umar (afdal al-ummah bad al-Nabi [s] Abu Bakr, thumma 'Umar thumma 'Uthman, thumma 'Ali, thumma yasuwwuna bayna baqiyyat al-shura).

This was the case at a time when the leading scholars (mashayiq) of Ahl al-Hadith at Baghdad basically did not accept the caliphate of Imam Ali ('a) (wa amma mashayikh: ashab al-hadith min al-Baghdaiyyin fa innahum la yuthbituna imamata 'Ali; minhum Ibn Main wa Abu Khaythamah, wa Muhammad ibn Hanbal, kanu yahdhifuna Aliyan min al-imamah wa yaz'amuna anna wilayatahu kanat ftnah).[^10]

Another witness is that of Yahya ibn Main, one of the prominent figures of the Ahl al-Hadith during the 3rd/9th century: He is cited as having said: "I say: Abu Bakr, Umar, then Uthman." [^11] Ahmad ibn Hanbal was somewhat moderate and he would say "We do not find fault with someone who considers Ali as the fourth caliph" (la nu'ibu man rabba'a bi Ali). [^12] In this regard there were many who were opposed to Ahmad ibn Hanba1. [^13] It appears that towards the end of his life Ahmad ibn Hanbal had become firmer in his belief in the legitimacy of the caliphate of Ali ('a) as the fourth caliph, and accordingly he would say that someone who did hot consider Ali as the fourth caliph was more is error than an.

ass (man lam yurabbi' bi Aliyin fa-huwa adallu min himari ahlih).[^14] Someone who found fault with Mu'awiyah and Amr ibn As was presumed to be a rafidi. [^15] Ahmad ibn Hanbal was told about someone who preferred Ali ('a) to Abu Bakr and Umar. He disapproved of such a belief and said, "I fear that he might be a rafidi" (Akhsha an yakuna rafidiyan).[^16] Ahmad ibn Hanbal's son says, "I asked my father as to who the rafidis were. He replied, It is someone who abuses and curses Abu Bakr and Umar (al-ladhi yashtumu wa yasubbu Aba Bakrin wa 'Umar).' " [^17] In connection with the meaning of rafd one may refer to the forgeries that have been attributed to the Prophet (s) concerning the rawafid. [^18]

An important term that must be considered for explanation of a significant part of Shi'i inclinations during this period is that of "Iraqi Shi'is." This name applies to those who despite their Shii inclinations and their narration of the virtues and merits (fada'il) of the Ahl al-Bayt and hostility towards the Umayyads-and later on towards the Abbasids-do not belong to any of the Shi'i sects, including Zaydi, Imami and the Isma'ili sects.

Certainly individuals of this type could be Mutazilites, but this name does not describe all of them and it might be said that there were those who were Iraqi Shi'is' without being Mu'tazilis. In view of the large number of this type of persons among Iraqi traditionists (muhaddithin) it must be said that this is an acceptable name for them which solves the problem of explaining the religious tendency of this type of individuals.

In any case, it should be noted that while referring to Shiism of Kufah, or basically to that of Iraq, it must be made clear whether the individual or tendency concerned is of the type associated with mere preference (tafdil) for Imam Ali ('a) over Uthman or that of Shi'ism in its doctrinal Imami sense. There were many in Kufah who were Shi'is only in the former sense and were very attached to the Ahl al-Bayt and many of them were narrators of the fada'il of Imam Ali and other figures of the Ahl al-Bayt.

These persons must not considered Sunnis in its technical sense although many of them considered the first two caliphs to have been legitimate. In other words, their narrations must be studied with attention to their strong Shi'i inclinations. Naturally; the Uthmaniyyah, who were the progenitors of the later Sunnis, had a character different from that of this group and they were not on good terms with one another. It is for this reason that in rijal works of the Ahl al-Hadith and the Hanbalis the allegation of tashayyu', in the sense of narration of the fada'il of the Ahl al-Bayt, is considered one of the marks of discredit (qadh).

They are "Iraqi Shiis" whose names are not mentioned in Shii works of rijal. Nevertheless, many of these persons have been considered trustworthy (thiqah) narrators by staunch Hanbalis and writers belonging to Ahl al-Hadith. For instance, concerning Dawud ibn Abi Awf, who has been considered a thiqah narrator by Ahmad ibn Hanbal and Yahya ibn Main, it has been said: "He is a Shii, and most of what he narrates is concerning the fada'il of the Ahl al-Bayt" (Shi'i, 'ammatu ma yarwihi fi fadi'il Ahl al-Bayt). Thereafter Dhahabi cites an example of his narrations which is a hadith of the Prophet (s) addressed to Ali ('a):

..... O Ibn Abi Talib, indeed you and your shi'ah shall be in paradise.

Following this hadith is a statement against the rafidis attributed to the Prophet (s). [^19]

Examples of the phrases and statements concerning Shi'is and cited by al-Dhahabi from experts of rijal of early centuries will serve to elucidate the use of the terms shi'ah and rafidi during that era. These expressions become harsher in accordance with the higher degree of the Shi'i tendency of the individual concerned. The expressions cited here are from Dhahabi's Mizan al-i.'tidal and are cited with the related volume and page number. Concerning 'Ubayd Allah ibn Musa, who was also one of al-Bukhari's teachers (mashayikh), it is said: "a fiery Shii" (kana Shi'i mutaharriqa) (iii, 16).

About Adi ibn Thabit it is said, "An extremist Shii, an extremist rafidi" (Shi'i mufrit, rafidiyun ghali) (iii, 62).

About Ali' ibn Salih al Taymi al-Kufi: "A mellowed Shii" (kana min 'atq al-shi'ah) (iii, 101).

Concerning Ala' ibn Abi al-Abbas it is said: "An extreme Shii" (Shi'i ghali) (iii, 102).

Concerning Ali ibn Thabit al-Jazari it is said: "He was one of the confirmed Shi'is, but does not go to the extremes" (kana min man yaskunu fi tashyyu'ihi wa la yaghlu) (iii, 116).

Concerning Ali ibn Musa al-Simsar it is said: "In him are Shi'i leanings tending towards rafd" (fihi tashayyu' yafdi ila al-rafd) (iii, 158).

Concerning Ali ibn Hashim ibn Burayd it is said: "He was extreme in his Shii leanings" (kana mufritan fi al-tashayyu) (iii, 160).

About Amr ibn Shamir al-Jufi it is said: "a rafidi who reviles the Companions" (rafidiyyun yashtammu al-sahabah) (iii, 368).

About Isa ibn Qirtas it is said, "He was one of the extremists in rafd' (kana min al-ghulat fi al-rafd) (iii, 322).

About Isa ibn Mihran al-Musta'tif it is said, "a rafidi, a monstrous liar, fiery in his rafd, was one of tile devils of the rafidis and their leaders" (rafidi, kadhdhab jabal, muhtariq fi al-rafd, kana min shayatin al-rafidah wa maraddatihim) (iii, 324). Najashi has also mentioned him. [^20]

Concerning Fudayl ibn Marzuq al-Kufi it is said: "He possessed Shi'i leanings but did not revile [the three caliphs" (kana yatashayyi ' min ghayri sabb) (iii, 362).

Concerning Fitr ibn Khalifah it is said, "Fitr was considered trustworthy by Yahya ibn Main, but he was an extreme khashabi. [^21]" (kana Fitru 'inda Yahya thiqah, wa lakinnahu khashabiyyun mufrit) (iii, 364).

Concerning Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari, the famous historian, it is said: "He had mild Shi'i leanings and an attachment for the Ahl al-Bayt which is not harmful" (fihi tashayyu' yasir wa muwalat la tadur) (iii, 498).

Sunni scholars and traditionists were accused of Shi'i tendencies on the slightest grounds. For instance, Daraqutni was accused of Shi'i inclinations merely for collecting the diwans of poets including that of Sayyid Himyari. [^22]

The following remark is made about Sayyid Murtada, the great Shi'i scholar: "A staunch rafidi" (Shi'i jald) (iii, 523).

Concerning Zurarah ibn Ayan, an eminent Shi'i figure, it is said: "He practised rafd" (kana yatrafad) (ii, 68).

Of Salim ibn Abi Hafasah, an Imami, it is said, 'An extremist in tashayyu', he used to say, O assassin of Na'thal (i.e. Uthman), I am at your service! O destroyer of Banu Umayyah, I am at your service!... He was one of the leaders of the detractors of Abu Bakr and Umar" (mufrit fi al-tashayyu' . . . yaqul: Labbayka qatila Na'thal, labbayka muhlik Bani Umayyah. . . wa kana min ru'us man yatanaqqasu Aba Bakr wa 'Umar) (ii, 110).

Concerning Abbad ibn Abd al-Samad, who is referred to as ghali fi al-tashayyu', it is stated, "Most of his narrations are about the fada'il' ('ammatu and yarwihi fi al fada'il) (ii, 369).

Concerning Abbad ibn Ya'qub it is stated, "He is one of exreme Shi'is, a leader of heresy, . . . He would abuse the forebears . . . and Uthman . . . and he would say, God is too just to let Talhah and Zubayr into paradise: they went to war against Ali after having sworn allegiance to him' ' (ii, 379).

About Abd al-Ralunan ibn Yusuf ibn Kharash it is stated, "He practised Shi'ism. . . and narrated the vices of the Shaykhayn and was a rafidi. . . and Abdan says, I asked Ibn Kharash concerning the hadith, "We [prophets] do not leave any inheritance, whatever we leave behind is charity (sadaqah)." He said, It is false (batil)." (ii, 600)

The following passage from Dhahabi also helps define mild' Shi'i leanings. After denying that Muhammad ibn Ziyad, one of the shaykhs of Bukhari who has been accused of hostility (nasb) towards the Ahl al-Bayt, was a nasibi, he says:

It is usual among the Syrians to exclude [from the list of legitimatc caliphs] Amir al-Muminin Ali, may God be pleased with him, since the days of Siffin. . . in the same way that among the Kufans there is an antipathy toward Uthman and a love for Ali, and their forebears used to be his shi'ah and his partisans .... Furthermore, there is a group among the Shiis of Iraq who befriend Ali as well as Uthman but they prefer Ali to Uthman and do not have friendly feelings towards those who fought 'Ali, though they do invoke God's forgiveness for them. That is a light form of tashayyu. [^23] He also considers the term "extremist Shi'i" (Shi'i ghali) to have had a different sense formerly He writes:

In former days "Shi'i ghali" used to mean someone who finds fault with Uthman, Zubayr, Talhah, Mu'awiyah and those who fought against 'Ali, may God be pleased with him, and someone who abuses them. And in our times and in our usage a ghali is someone who considers those figures to be unbelievers and disowns the Shaykhayn i.e. Abu Bakr and Umar). [^24]

It may be said that basically one rarely finds a Kufan without "Shii" leanings. [^25] That which is meant by this term is a general sense covering a range from the lowest to the highest degree.

Yahya ibn Main cites Abd Allah ibn Mubarak as having said, "Anyone who desires martyrdom should enter the Dar al-Bittikh in Kufah and invoke God's mercy for Uthman." [^26] According to another report some Kufans professed their superiority over the Basrans in these words in al-Ma'mun's presence: Everyone knows that aside from Kufah there is no town on earth's surface whose people should be united in their love of Banu Hashim, and no individual belonging to Banu Hashim has ever been slain in the east or the west without the corpses of Kufans lying about him with their blood mingling with his blood. [^27]

In a tradition narrated from Imam Sadiq ('a) it is said:

Indeed God presented our wilayah to the people of every town but none of them accepted it except the people of Kufah. [^28]

Sa'id ibn Abi Arubah says, "I arrived in Baghdad and sat in a session of Abu Hanifah's lectures. One day he mentioned Uthman and invoked God's mercy for him. I said to him, May God have mercy on you. I have not heard anyone except you invoking mercy upon Uthman in this city."' [^29]

There were so many virtues (fada'il) recounted concerning Kufah, and later on Qum, that Sa'd ibn Abd Allah al-Ashari compiled a book named Fadl Qum wa al-Kufah. [^30]