Alone With the Beloved: the Words of ʿalī B. Al-Ḥusayn Inthe Ṣaḥīfa Sajjādiyya

CHAPTER 5: The Style and Themes in the Ṣaḥīfa Sajjādiyya

Regrettably not much has been written on the aspect of style or the themes contained within the Ṣaḥīfa independently. The Arabic commentaries on the Ṣaḥīfa150 largely focus on the linguistic analysis of the terms and phrases used by the Imam ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn in addition to supplementing the contents of the prayers with supporting reports by the Prophet and the Imams in the Shīʿa tradition. In this respect the only contribution appears to be from Chittick in his introduction to the translation of the Ṣaḥīfa151 and Colin Turner's article on Prayers within the Twelver Shīʿa tradition.152

Padwick’s Muslim Devotions is, as described by Colin Turner, a magnum opus that covers the whole Muslim world in terms of the practise of prayers, yet is weakest when it comes to the subject of prayers within the Twelver Shīʿa tradition.153 Padwick does touch upon the Ṣaḥīfa but not independently, yet in fairness does cover certain themes contained within the Ṣaḥīfa in a more general sense. Turner in his article has offered a broad sevenfold categorisation of prayers within the Twelver Shīʿ’a tradition;154 the prayers within Ṣaḥīfa generally fall into five of these genera.

Chittick’s work, although brief, is insightful and very useful in acquainting the reader with the personal, spiritual and theological dimensions that run through the crosssection of the prayers. Thus from Chittick’s introduction of describing the style of the Ṣaḥīfa and the category description given by Turner in his article together with a general understanding of prayers within the Muslim world by Padwick we have a very small nonetheless a very useful point of beginning into the study of the Ṣaḥīfa within the English language.

Our analysis of the Ṣaḥīfa in what will follow will be to explore at both the general structure of the prayers and the content of the prayers. As for the structure, we will look at the way in which the Imam generally begins and ends his prayers. In terms of the contents we will first look at the fundamental tenets that are present within the prayers such as the notion of Unity of God, Essential lack and Need inherent within the creatures, which forms the overall worldview of the Imam and determines the creature-God relationship. After this we will elaborate on factors that are subordinate to the above such as ethical, social and spiritual. Finally we will place the prayers of the Ṣaḥīfa into broad categories and genera in terms of the prayers recited spontaneously or being premeditated, highly spiritual or semi spiritual and rational, together with placing them in other lesser fundamental categories. In our discussion on both the style and the content, we will, as far as possible, site from the broader Islamic spiritual literature in order to give a better understanding of why the Imam has employed his particular style and content.

1. The Style of Supplications in terms of Content and Structure

The style and contents of prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa generally transcend religious limitations and boundaries. We cannot deny that both the style and

the contents of the prayers are a product of the influence of Islam upon the Imam155 , yet there is a deep sense of humanness about the prayers that would appeal to any individual. The Imam’s approach is in the context of his ‘createdness’ and ‘creaturliness’ that is common across humanity. In this sense he unhesitatingly displays his strengths and weaknesses, joys and sorrows, anxiety at situations beyond his control and a deep need for a God in Whom he confides and seeks support from. These are the psychological challenges that face all human beings in the course of their lives regardless of creed and culture. The prayers in brief are what I term as ‘spiritual ethics’, designed to bring a state of wholesomeness within an individual and do not necessarily require an individual to profess faith in a particular belief or doctrine.

With the exception of the Names of Allāh, personalities of Islam and references to eschatology, there is not much that would delineate these prayers as something particular to the Muslim. On that note we notice that prayers generally are an ideal means to create that much needed moral common ground of discourse between people of different religious persuasions, however in particular the ethical-spiritual content within the prayers of the Ṣaḥīfa may even appeal to people of non-religious persuasion. In brief the language of the prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa in many instances is a human language with an appeal to humanity at large.

Having said this we can consider the style of the supplications within the Ṣaḥīfa in terms of both the structure and the contents. The contents, as mentioned above, have a broad human appeal and shall be dealt with in subsequent sections; as for the structure, it is very much inline with the particular Islamic and Shīʿa teachings and whose relevance would not be appreciable by readers who are not acquainted with the spiritual etiquettes of prayers within Islam. The Imam commences every prayer with the Praise of God and sends salutations upon the Prophet and the members of his household and ends the prayers with salutations.156 In many prayers the Imam frequently invokes the blessing of God upon the Prophet and his family during the course of the prayers not merely at the beginning and end.157 The reason for this is that there are uncountable reports from the Prophet and the Imams that God accepts prayers and supplications when they commence with His praise, similarly there are numerous reports stating that a guaranteed means for the granting of requests is to invoke God’s blessings upon the Prophet and his household.158

The Qur’ān commences with the praise of God in the very first chapter named Surat al-Ḥamd or Surat al-Fātiḥa (the Chapter of Praise or Opening) where it states: al-ḥamdu-li-llāhi rabbil-ʿālamīn “All praise is for Allāh the Nurturer of the worlds…”159

Similarly the Muslim daily devotions, which comprise of seventeen units to be prayed throughout the day, contain the statement: samiʿ Allāhu liman ḥamidah “Surely Allāh responds to the one who praises Him” in every single unit.160 As for the invocation of blessing and salutation upon the Prophet and his family the Qur’ān states: inna allāha wa malāikatahu yuṣallūna ʿala n-nabiyy yā ayyuhalladhīna āmanū ṣallū ʿalayhi wasallimū

taslīman “Indeed Allāh and His angels send blessing upon the Prophet thus O you who believe, invoke blessings and salutations upon him!”161

1.1 Basic General Tenets of the Prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa

1.1.1 Individuality and Spontaneity

The Ṣaḥīfa is a collection of prayers recited by the Fourth Shīʿa Imam ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn on various occasions of his life and in different personal and psychological states. Prayers in Islam and within the Twelver Shīʿa tradition enjoy a prominent place within the communal and individual life of the Muslim. Prayers fundamentally are means of relation and connection between the individual and God and fall into a variety of classifications as attested to by all three of the above authors. The most central and the broadest category of prayers is one of obligational and recommended.

The manner and the method, together with the time and place for the performance of the obligatory prayers is prescribed and fixed by the Prophet, whereas the recommended prayers have a scope for personal improvisation in terms of time, place, personal state and occasion. By and large it is this allowance of personal improvisation and formulation of prayers that marks the fundamental distinction between the obligatory and recommended prayers. The non-obligatory recommended prayers as mentioned above are of various genera such as supplications for needs or on special occasions or for others to mention but a few, and are such that the individual can be both spontaneous and original.162

The key terms used within the Qur’ān denoting prayers, generally of both the obligatory and supererogatory categories but with greater emphasis on the nonobligatory are Duʿā and Dhikr. Dhikr a verbal noun from the root verb in Arabic dhakara, literally means to make a mention of or to remember163 and is used frequently within the Qur’ān in the general sense of consciously connecting with God in great frequency and on all occasions. For example we have the following verses from the Qur’ān, at the completion of the main ceremonies of the major pilgrimage, the Ḥajj: “Then remember Allāh as you remember your forefathers or a more intense remembrance"164 Or: “Remember Allāh an abundant remembrance and glorify Him at daybreak and at dusk”165 and finally verses in the praise of righteous people such as:

“Those who remember Allāh standing, sitting and on their sides, they reflect upon the creation of the heavens and the earth and state; our Lord! You have not created this in vain, save us from the chastisement of the Fire."166

As for the word duʿā from the root verb daʿā, literally means to call or call upon.167

Duʿā within the Qur’ān denotes a direct, spontaneous and an unpretentious communication with God. Verses such as those depicting the psycological state of anxiety where an individual in the face of danger lets go of inhibition and calls upon God, for example: “They call upon God imploring Him...”168 There are numerous verses within the Qur’ān where the word duʿā gives the meaning of a personal and direct relationship between

the creatures and their Lord in which God, in an encouraging tone, commands the creatures to call upon Him. For example the verse:

“Say to My servants of Me that I am indeed near, I respond to the supplication of one who calls upon Me whenever he calls upon Me.”169 And: “Call on to Me and I shall respond.”170 Such verses encourage a personal unpretentious relation with God where an individual feels at liberty with the procession of a more or less, right on God to approach Him on the individual’s terms. Whereas verses such as: “Call Allāh or call al-raḥmān (Most Merciful) whichever you call upon, Allāh has the beautiful Names,”171 give right to personal improvisation and formulation of communication with God to the individual’s desire. Although the devotees do repeat the adʿīya (plural of duʿā) dictated by the Imams for various occasions however, even in such ceremonial performances, the individual is ideally required to be in a psychological state where the duʿā is intended as a personal discourse with God which is made possible by the universal language of the duʿā as mentioned above.

The tenets of dhikr and duʿā, namely the frequent rememberence of God on all occassions and the display of an intimate personal relation with God resulting in an unpretentious natural and spontaneous communication with God to the formulation of an individual’s desire and chosing are the essentials of supererogatory communication with God. The Ṣaḥīfa in its entirety depicts these two tenets where the Imam in every prayer displays his individuality and humanness, where he at a very personal and intimate level portrays a direct relationship with God in which he unashamedly and unassumingly speaks to God from the depths of his soul. This is fairly apparent from a cursory reading of the titles of the prayers and their contents. For example, we have prayers that the Imam has recited at mornings and evenings, on the completion of the recitation of the Qur’ān, and Day of fast-breaking, among others. In contrast, we have prayers he recited for seeking help in paying his debts, asking for water during drought, when death was mentioned or prayers for his parents, children and friends.

Finally at a personal level there are prayers recited when he was sick, making confession of his inadequacies, atonement at acts of wrongdoing,172 in moments of fear and for removal of worries. In every one of these prayers there is a very personal tone that the Imam is using where he profeses his own state of inadequcy and calls upon the mercy of God.

1.2 Particular tenets of prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa

1.2.1 Theological Tenets- Unity of God and the notion of Lordship and Servant-hood

Within the Shīʿa tradition there are numerous reports from the Prophet and the Imams that talk of duʿā as the essence of worship and the best form of worship.173 In turn worship in Islam is the fundamental reason for the creation of humans and the Jinn as attested to by the verse: “I have not created Jinn and Men except for My worship.”174

In Muslim theology and spirituality, worship establishes the distinction between God and His creatures. Through worship an individual acknowledges his or her state of createdness and need to God, and

establishes God’s rank of being the Creator and the One in a state of absolute completion without any deficiency. Duʿā in this sense of marking a distinction between God and the creatures occupies a fundamental position with the Shīʿ spiritual and theological outlook. For example Imam ʿAlī in his famous prayer popularly known as Duʿā Kumayl, highly recommended to be prayed by the faithful on the eve of Thursdays, states towards the end;

Indeed You have decreed upon Your servants to worship You and have commanded them to pray to You and have guaranteed Your response. Thus to You O Lord I turn my face, and towards You I extend my hands, by Your honour grant my prayer... Forgive the one who owns nothing but a Duʿā...175

Duʿā, in essence, is therefore a conscious acknowledgment of need to God and God’s state of untarnished perfection. Chittick terms this tenet of the prayers within Ṣaḥīfa as tawḥīd (the Unity of God) in Devotional Mode. The Imam in his prayers as Chittick points out, continuously attributes all goodness, mercy, love, perfection… to God in a way compatible with the Unity of God as in “there is no god but God”, “there is no love except through God’s initiative”, “there is no knowledge but in God”, “there is no mercy except from God”…. Whilst at the same time attributing all deficiency, lack, sin and inadequacy to his own self.176

The dimension of Tawḥīd is a central principle of the prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa where the other tenets that are mentioned below are seen as its facets and subordinate to it.

1.2.1.1 Variety of Names and Attributes of God to approach Him by during various needs

Different trends of thought within the Islamic intellectual traditions have classified the Names and attributes of God in somewhat of a different manner each in accordance with their particular outlook. Fundamentally, each group within the Shīʿa tradition accepts the notion of the essential unity between God, His Attributes and Names due to the strict teachings of Unity of God within the Shīʿi religious literature; the only difference in this respect is in terms of the variety of function of God in relation to the world and His envisaged purpose from creation. Chittick alludes to some of the approaches to the Attributes of God within the Muslim intellectual traditions, however due to the lack of scope within his introduction to the Ṣaḥīfa he does not discuss the issue in the context of the prayers of the Imam.

The theologians look at the Attributes of God in terms of affirmation and negation or in terms of the Attributes of the Essence and Act of God177 whereas the theosophers178 and mystics focus more on the distinction of the Attributes of Beauty and Majesty whilst looking at the world as a stage for the display of God’s Attributes and Names.

Rūmī reduces human-Divine psychology squarely to the Attributes of Gentleness and Severity where each human state corresponds to a facet of God’s Attribute of Mercy or Wrath, through which individuals both connect with God and arrive at the fullness of their vested potentials.179 This is precisely the manner in which the Shīʿa Imams have introduced the notion of the function of the Names of God through their teachings and in particular through the prayers.

The famous Duʿā by the name of al-Jawshan al-Kabīr180 which is recited by the faithful in the nights of the month of Ramadan and is attributed to the Prophet of Islam consists of a thousand Names and Attributes of God. The prayer of al-Jawshan al-Kabīr describes God’s absoluteness, unity and perfection through His various Names and Attributes in relation to His function in human life. For example; “O Friend for one who has no friend... O Physician for one who has no physician… O Strength of the weak... O One Who elevates Ranks… O One Who defends…” and so forth. Thus from reading the prayers of the Imams we find that there are Names and Attributes of God for particular types of situations through which He is to be invoked and approached.

Imam ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn follows this method prominently in certain prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa.181

1.1.2 Spiritual Dimensions

Great emphasis is placed upon the individual psychological state of the supplicant to the extent that the individual state is seen as a means of assurance for the Divine response. In this respect several spiritual factors as forming the overall psychological state of an individual are dictated by the Prophet and the Imams. These factors, to list the main ones are things such as; the softness of heart (al-riqqah), tearfulness, acknowledgment of sin, directedness to God etc. I term these tenets generally as the dimension of the individual’s conscious presence and God-focus.

In several reports from the Prophet and the Imams, the faithful are exhorted to approach God through a state of softened heart and tearfully.182 Similarly, elsewhere they are told be God–focused during prayers and being mindful that they are in the presence of God who sees and hears them183 , and finally the supplicant is told to have full faith and confidence of Divine grace at the point of prayer. All these factors in turn are, as taught by the Prophet and the Imams, assured means of securing God’s response.184

The Imam displays the above psychological states throughout his prayers but more so in some of them than others. For example we see in his Supplication of Confession and Seeking Repentance:185 where he says; “So here I am my Lord, standing at the gate of Thy might, the standing of the lowly, the surrendered, asking Thee in my shame, the asking of the destitute, the pitiful… He is bowed before Thee, bent, his head lowered, thrown down, his legs shaking in fear, his tears flooding his cheeks….”

(Ṣaḥīfa, p. 44).

Moreover, Chittick brings an interesting discussion in his introduction to the Ṣaḥīfa in relation to the Imam’s attitude of confessing sins and considering himself to be utterly unworthy. Whereas on the one hand the Shīʿa theologically maintain that the Imams are flawless creatures in every respect, yet on the other we witness from the prayers of all of them without exception, and especially from ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn, such admission and confession of sin. This, as Chittick points out of sort, is in keeping with the Imam’s conscious acknowledgement of his inadequacy in the presence of God’s perfection, not that the Imam is guilty of crimes associated entities lesser than him.186

1.1.3 Ethical and Moral Dimensions

The Prophet, when asked about his missionary role and purpose, replied: “I have been sent to complete or perfect the noble human traits.”187 Similarly the Qur’ān states in the praise of the Prophetic conduct: wa innaka la ʿalā khuluqin ʿaẓīm “Indeed you possess lofty human traits.188 Acquisition or completion of befitting human morals has been a priority on the agendas of the Prophets and the saints. Imam ʿAlī b. al-Ḥusayn places great emphasis on human moral makeup, outlook and conduct through his prayers. Human values are dealt with fundamentally from the perspective of rights of others upon an individual, where the other is not constituted by mere other persons, but also in terms of one’s own soul, mind and limbs. Thus, moral betterment is considered by the Imam as the betterment of oneself through the reformation of character and by fulfilment of the rights of others. The rights of others fall into three categories: The rights of God, the rights of the individuals’ own person and the rights of other creatures. The Imam seeks pardon from God for the transgressions committed against the rights of the others in the above sense and invokes Divine assistance to redress the situation wherever possible. There are three major parts within the Ṣaḥīfa that deal with moral issues in a direct way, these are- The Treatise of Rights189 , Prayer for Worthy Morals and The Prayer of Penance.

The Prayer for Worthy Morals,190 again talks of the betterment of the soul fundamentally before talking of interaction with others. In the Prayer of Penance,191 the Imam implores God through admission of his transgression upon his soul, upon the rights of God and rights of other creatures and asks for Divine pardon and assistance in rectifying the wrongs that he has committed.

1:1:4 Social and Political Dimensions

The Qur’ān in several places teaches that the human community has essentially been a single community and that there has always been a single dīn (religion or a way of submission) See for example verses such as: Mankind was one single nation, and Allāh sent Messengers with glad tidings and warnings...192

However in particular the Qur’ān talks of the Muslim community as a single entity where the community almost forms the greater identity of its members. Elsewhere and to a lesser degree, the Qur’ān addresses the issue of the shared identity and fates of the People of the Book, Ahlul Kitāb or the religious traditions branching from Abraham namely the Jews, Christians and Muslims through verses and at places the Qur’ān guarantees salvation and deliverance to the believers, Jews, Christians and the Sabeans: “Those who believe (in the Qur’ān), and those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Christians and the Sabeans,- any who believe in Allāh and the Last Day, and work righteousness, shall have their reward with their Lord; on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.”193

The understanding that the umma in particular is a single family is further emphasised though numerous Prophetic traditions encouraging a general concern for other Muslims such as: “Indeed, if a person does not have concern for the affairs of the Muslims then this, in reality, is a deficiency in ones Islam.”194 Similarly from al-Ṣādiq we have: “To see to

the needs of a believer is better than the acceptance of a thousand pilgrimages performed with all its rites and freeing a thousand slaves for the sake of Allāh.”195

The Imam, in line with this Qur’ānic and Prophetic outlook, invokes God’s blessings upon previous prophets, their religions and adherents. The Imam states for example;

“O God... in every era and time in which Thou didst send a messenger and set up for people a director, from the period of Ādam down to Muḥammad (God bless him and his household), from among Imams of guidance and the Leaders of the God-fearing (upon them be peace – remember them with forgiveness and good pleasure!”196

Needless to say, such prayers are a product of untarnished human sentiments and can be a potent means for inter-religious dialogue in our modern pluralistic world where through the core literature of Islam and by one of its most celebrated personalities, pluralism as opposed to mere inclusivism is advocated as a part of the Islamic worldview. At other instances we have numerous examples where the Imam prays for the Umma and the rectification of its affairs, the soldiers guarding the Muslim frontiers, neighbours and believers, such as in the prayers of; His Supplication for himself and the People under his Guardianship, His Supplication for his Neighbours and Friends when he Mentioned them, His Supplication for the People of the Frontiers, etc.197

1.1.5 Esoteric Dimensions

In a certain number of prayers such as the Munājāt or the Whispered Prayers, the Imam interacts with God through an informal, mystical and Sufi like manner. Here the language is one of love where formality and courtesy in addressing God feature less prominently. These appear at such moments where the Imam has his guard down and has let go of his inhibitions and approached God on the terms of a loving friend who desires non-other than his friend. The Imam in these prayers, unlike the other supplications, does not show as much concern about salvation and deliverance from Hell, rather the emphasis in these prayers is upon the meeting with God, absorption and effacement within God. The Imam supplicates for the attainment of the love of God and beholding the splendour of His Face. These are prayers in which intuition and love carry an individual beyond the threshold of reason and intellect. Prayers such as: The Whispered Prayer of the Lovers and The Whispered Prayer of the Beseechers,198 amongst others, clearly demonstrate that the Imam is in a very private moment of intimacy with his Most Beloved and at the core desires nothing beyond God, for example he says;

My God! Who can have tasted the sweetness of Thy love, Then wanted another in place of Thee?

Who can have become intimate with Thy nearness, Then sought removal from Thee?199

2. Broad Categories of the Prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa

Although the cross-section of the prayers within the Ṣaḥīfa maintain the fundamental feature of God-creature relation, where God is the source of all good and the creature as the point of deficiency, yet the manner of prayer

and content allow us to group them into different genera. As mentioned earlier, both Chittick and Turner have shed some light on the subject. We will look at the category of prayers in accordance to both these authors in what follows. Although the distinctions these authors make in terms of the categories may not be exhaustive, nonetheless are admirable contributions to an overall understanding of the nature of prayers contained within the Ṣaḥīfa.

2.1 Broad Genera- Spontaneous and Premeditated

Chittick in his introduction to his translation to the Ṣaḥīfa makes a distinction among the prayers in terms of those that were supplicated spontaneously and those that were recited and practised. In this respect, Chittick states, the prayers generally are those that were offered spontaneously by the Imam on behalf of his own self with the exception of prayers that were ceremonially offered on particular events or those offered for others such as the prayer for his parents. The prayer for the Day of ʿArafa, for example, Chittick observes, must have been taught by the Imam to his disciples due to its ceremonial recital on the Day of ʿArafa. Similarly Chittick believes that the prayer for his parents must have been a dictation of the Imam to his followers based on certain sentiments contained within the prayer and the Imam’s own personal circumstances.200 This then is a broad twofold category of the prayers in terms of those prayed spontaneously and those that were premeditated.

2.2 Another Broad Genera- Rational and Intuitive

This is another broad category of prayers based on the psychological state of the Imam. Although neither Chittick nor Turner have mentioned this directly, both have alluded to it in some ways. By and large we find that the Imam addresses God in a very courteous and a formal way where his words are fashioned and expressed in a way that are of a sober devotee who supplicates to his Lord, Authority and Master.

Here the Imam is restrained, constrained, contained and acutely aware of the distinction between Master and servant or slave. However there are a number of prayers such as the Munājāt where the Imam allows himself the liberty to address God in a less formal manner. Here the Imam talks more as a lover obsessed with God rather than a slave talking to his master. In these prayers the heart and the intuition of the Imam seems to predominate his reason in relation to what he seeks from God.

These prayers speak of the meeting with God, His love and His presence. I have decided to term the distinction here as distinction based on the predominance of either reason or spiritual intuition.

2:2 Five Particular Genera

Following are five categories of the seven categories given by turner in his article201 on the general types of prayers within the Shīʿa tradition found within the Ṣaḥīfa:

2.2.1 Prayers designed as paeans of praise and thanks to God

Although most prayers in the Ṣaḥīfa begin with the praise to God there are certain prayers specifically dedicated to that, such as the very first prayer with the title ‘Praise of God’ where the Imam says:

Praise belongs to God, The First, without a first before Him, The Last, without a last behind Him.

Beholders’ eyes fall short of seeing Him, Describers’ imaginations are not able to depict Him.202

Another example is seen in His Supplication when Perils were Repelled or Requests quickly granted, where we find:

O God, to Thee belongs praise for Thy excellent accomplishment and for Thy trial which Thou hast turned away from me!

But make not my share of Thy mercy the well-being which Thou hast quickly granted to me, lest I become wretched through what I have loved and someone else gain felicity through what I have disliked!203

2.2.2 Invocations that include requests of forgiveness and clemency

The Ṣaḥīfa is punctuated with supplications that reach out for God’s forgiveness and mercy, such as the prayers of His Supplication Asking Pardon, His Supplication in Seeking Pardon, His Supplication in Repentance, such as:

This is the station of him whom sins have passed from hand to hand.

Offenses’ reins have led him on, and Satan has gained mastery over him.

He fell short of what Thou hast commanded through neglect and he pursued what Thou hast prohibited in delusion...

...O God, so here I am: I have come to Thee obeying Thy command (for Thou hast commanded supplication) and asking the fulfilment of Thy promise, (for Thou hast promised to respond) Thou hast said, Supplicate Me and I will respond to you204

...O God, I repent to Thee in this my station from my sins, great and small, my evil deeds, inward and outward, my lapses, past and recent, with the repentance of one who does not tell himself that he might disobey or secretly think that he might return to an offense...205

In the supplications of repentance we also find ʿAlī .b Ḥusayn not only repenting for his own inadequacies towards God, but also seeking forgiveness and repair for the wrongdoings towards others, seeing them ultimately as his own shortcomings, such as ‘His Supplication in Asking Pardon for Misdeeds to God’s Servants and for Falling Short in their Rights and that his Neck be Set Free from the Fire’:

O God, I ask pardon from Thee for the person wronged in my presence whom I did not help, the favour conferred upon me for which I returned no thanks, the evildoer who asked pardon from me and whom I did not pardon, the needy person who asked from me and whom I preferred not over myself, the right of a believer who possesses a right incumbent upon me which I did not fulfil, the fault of a believer which became evident to me and which I did not conceal, and every sin which presented itself to me and which I failed to avoid.

I ask pardon, my God, for all of these and their likes, with an asking of pardon in remorse which may act as an admonisher against similar things ahead of me...206

2:2:3 Prayers for individual’s spiritual betterment or for the spiritual, emotional and material wellbeing of others

In this category we also find many prayers, perhaps the most well-known being ‘His supplication on Noble Moral Traits and Acts Pleasing to God’ also known as Duʿā Makārim al-Akhlāq. Here we find the Imam intensively conversing with God in beseeching Him to assist him to refine his character, for example:

O God, bless Muḥammad and his Household, cause my faith to reach the most perfect faith, make my certainty the most excellent certainty, and take my intention to the best of intentions and my works to the best of works!

O God, bless Muḥammad and his Household, adorn me with the adornment of the righteous, and clothe me in the ornaments of the god-fearing, through spreading justice, restraining rage, quenching the flame of hate, bringing together the people of separation, correcting discord, spreading about good behaviour, covering faults, mildness of temper, lowering the wing,207 beauty of conduct, gravity of bearing, agreeableness in comportment, precedence in reaching excellence, preferring bounteousness, refraining from condemnation, bestowing bounty on the undeserving, speaking the truth, though it be painful, making little of the good in my words and deeds, though it be much, and making much of the evil in my words and deeds, though it be little!208

2.2.4 Prayers that are made on behalf of others

In this group we find prayers such as ‘Prayers for his Parents, for his Children, for his Neighbours and Friends, the People of the Frontiers’ etc., such as:

...And single out my parents, O God, for honour with Thee and blessings from Thee, O Most Merciful of the merciful!

...and let me be devoted to them, with the devotion of a compassionate mother!

Make my obedience and devotion to them more gladdening to my eyes than sleep to the drowsy and more refreshing to my breast than drink to the thirsty, so that I may prefer their inclination to my inclination, set their satisfaction before my satisfaction, make much of their devotion to me though it be little, and make little of my devotion to them though it be great...209

2.2.5 All prayers not locatable in any of the above

In this category we have prayers such as the ‘Fifteen Whispered Prayers’, ‘His Supplications for the Days of the Week’ and various other supplications such as ‘His Supplication Against what he Feared’ etc:

My Lord, make me not the target of affliction nor the object of Thy vengeance, respite me, comfort me, release me from my stumble, and send not affliction after me, for Thou hast seen my frailty, and the paucity of my stratagems. So give me patience, for I, my Lord, am weak, and I plead to Thee, my Lord!

‘I seek refuge in Thee from Thee’, so give me refuge!210

Albeit not extensive, trying to remain within the boundaries of this study, which may well be extended much further, the reader would have a better

and hopefully richer understanding of this classical literary textual heritage within Islam, of the main streams that run through the text and the various arteries they flow into, taking us towards the end of this study ending with the conclusion to follow.