The Role of Aisha in the History of Islam (volume 3)

The Quranic Memorizers and Interpreters of Kufah in Ash-sham

Mu'awiyah was deeply averse to the stay of the Prophet's great companions in ash-Sham. The clashes of Mu'awiyah were not confined to such men as Abu Dharr. This ungodly man Mu'awiyah, who was the heir of paganism with all its peculiarities came into conflict with anyone who had even slightly discovered the truth of Islam. Consequently he quarreled violently with the Kufah memorizers and interpreters of the Qur'an, who had been exiled to Sham. al-Baladhuri, the great historian, writes in his reliable book of Ansab al- ashraf: When 'Uthman dismissed al-Walid from the governorship of Kufah and 123. His lineage in Ansab of Sam'ani 466, and al-Lubab al-ansab of Ibn al-Athir 2/199-220, and Jamharat of Ibn Hazm 195-196.

' replaced him by Sa'id ibn al-'As, he ordered the latter to treat the people of that city leniently and try not to confront them as al-Walid had done. So Sa'id kept the company of the dignitaries and Quranic interpreters of the city and they got together every night, and discussed various matters.124 One day in this gathering the talk led to the subject of Sawad and al-Jabal125. Those present preferred the flourishing state and greenness of Sawad to Jabal, and claimed that in the fields and gardens of Sawad all kinds of crops could be found, in addition to date palms. The city's chief of police said: "I wish these lands belonged to the Emir so that you could own better fields and gardens." Malik al-Ashtar answered: "If your wish is for the Emir, wish him to obtain better fields and gardens than ours. Do not wish him to obtain property. Let us keep ours!"

That man said: "What harm does that wish do to you that has angered you? By God, if he decided and wanted it, he could take possession of all these fields and gardens!" Al-Ashtar answered: "I swear to God that even if he decides to take possession of them, he is not capable of it." Sa'id ibn al-'As became angry at these words and said to those present: "The fields and gardens of Sawad under any circumstances belong to the Quraysh." (Meaning the Umayyads and such tribes as Taym and 'Adi who were in Mecca and not to the Ansar who were originally from Yemen, to which group Malik al-Ashtar and most inhabitants of Kufah belonged.)

Al-Ashtar answered sharply: "Do you wish to make for yourself and your relatives a fief of the fruits of our wars and what God has granted us? I swear to God that if anyone covets the lands and fields of that region, we will pound him so heavily as to be a lesson to him."126 Then al-Ashtar rushed upon the chief of the police, but he was checked by those present. Sa'id ibn al-'As wrote an account of this incident to 'Uthman and stated: "So long as al-Ashtar and his friends, who are called the Qaris of Kufah and are nothing but ignorant and stupid people, remain in this city, I cannot keep control of anything."

'Uthman wrote back: "Send them to ash-Sham.' Thus these Kufah Qaris, 124. The word "Qari" (which now means a reciter of the Qur'an) had a wider meaning in the culture of those days. It meant a person who had memorized the Qur'an and was familiar with its interpretation and acted as a religious guide for the people. Consequently ho ad a great influence on their thoughts and beliefs.

  1. as-Sawad was the villages and farms situated in Iraq which were conquered in 'Umar's time, and because of its numerous trees and cultivated fields it was called Sawad (meaning "black" with greenness). It stretches from Mosul to Abadan in length and from al-'Adhib in al-Qadisiyah to Halwan in breadth. But Jabal was the region between Isfahan and Zanjan, Qazvin, Hamadan (Achmethan), Dinawar, Qarmasin and Rayy. (Mu'jam al-buldan)

  2. Ansab al-ashraf 5/40.

namely these Quranic interpreters who had quarreled with Sa'id, left Kufah and settled in Damascus in ash-Sham. Mu'awiyah with his particular cunningness Considered it necessary at first to show a welcome to these exiled Qaris, and thus he treated them kindly and respectfully. But this treatment could not last long, since al-Ashtar and his friends were valiant, honest and devout individuals who could not sincerely associate with such a cunning, hypocritical and ungodly man as Mu'awiyah.

At last what was expected to happen, took place and a violent altercation occurred between Mu'awiyah and al-Ashtar, and a severe quarrel ensued. Al-Ashtar was seized and imprisoned for quite a long time. After he was set free, conditions assumed a different form. Now al-Ashtar and his friends, who stayed away from the ruler of ash-Sham, chose to associate with the people of the streets and markets of Damascus. Mu'awiyah reported this matter to 'Uthman and stated: "You have sent to me such individuals who have corrupted their own city and caused a riot there. I am not secure from the danger of there corrupting my entourage and the people of Damascus, too, and teach them things, which they had not known so far. Thus the people of ash- Sham will be as corrupt as the Kufans and will lose their mental health and equilibrium."

'Uthman thought of a way, namely to send al-Ashtar and his friends to a remote and insignificant town where they could not do much harm. So he ordered to deport them to the town of Hims, and this order was carried out.127 Al-Mada'ini, the famous historian of the early centuries of Islam, narrates that they had some gatherings with Mu'awiyah in ash-Sham where they had heated arguments with each other. For instance, one day Mu'awiyah said to them: "All the Qurayshis know that Abu Sufyan was the noblest and most exalted member of them, with the exception of the Prophet who was chosen by God and respected by all. If Abu Sufyan had been the father of everyone, all of them would have been great, docile and forbearing men."

SA'sa'ah ibn Sawhan retorted at once: "You are lying Mu'awiyah! Human beings are produced by someone (meaning Adam) who had definitely been better than Abu Sufyan, by a man whom God created with His own hand and by His own power, and into whom He breathed His own spirit, and ordered the angels to prostrate themselves before him. Nevertheless among his offsprings there appeared good and wicked ones, intelligent and stupid ones and they were not all the same in character."128

As we saw, Mu'awiyah was displeased with the stay in ash-Sham of the Prophet's true friends and companions and of such individuals as Abu Dharr and 'Ubadah. Similarly he had no desire that the interpreters and followers of the Qur'an and honest and devout persons should reside in that city. This 127. Former source 5/43.

  1. at-Tabari 5/88-90, and Ibn al-Athir 3/57-60, and Description of Nahj 1/58-160.

matter vexed him so much that these individuals would divulge to the people certain truths, which had been hidden from them, and inform them of divine injunctions, in which case Mu'awiyah could no longer carry on his selfish life in the manner of the tyrants of the time, like Caesars and Kasras.

Mu'awiyah after 'Uthman

God forbid that I should lake the perverse as my aids. 'Ali ibn Abi Talib As we have already seen129 owing to the greed and crimes of the relatives of 'Uthman who had the ruling power behind them, riots and rebellions spread over big Islamic cities, and dissatisfied Muslims placed 'Uthman in straitened circumstances in Medina. This third caliph wrote to Mu'awiyah in the same way that he had written to other governors, asking for help. He said in his letter: "The people of Medina have resorted to infidelity and disobedience and have violated their allegiance. Let the warriors of ash-Sham mount any kind of animal, and dispatch them to my aid."

Mu'awiyah received the letter. He was well aware of the chaotic conditions, and was probably waiting for the death of 'Uthman and his removal as a powerful rival, in order to get one step nearer to the seat of caliphate. Therefore, despite all his debt to 'Uthman, he showed no haste in sending helps, and accounted for his negligence by declaring: "I have no wish to oppose all the friends and companions of the Prophet." What a deception and cunning- ness he displayed!

When he took so long in giving a positive response to the caliph's letter, 'Uthman wrote to the people of ash-Sham themselves, asking them to leave their city and hasten to his aid.130 al-Baladhuri writes: When 'Uthman wrote to Mu'awiyah asking for his help, Mu'awiyah sent Yazid ibn Asad al-Qasri with a group of soldiers towards Medina, but ordered that on-their arrival at Dhu Khushub131 they should set up a camp there and proceed no further.

With such an order, the commander and his army proceeded towards Medina, and when they reached the zone of Dhu Khushub, they halted and lingered there so long until 'Uthman was killed in the hands of the people. When all the riot and tumult subsided, Mu'awiyah recalled Yazid ibn Asad, and the army returned to ash-Sham without having taken a positive step. Al-Baladhuri, the reliable historian of the third century of Hijrah, believes that Mu'awiyah's action was not without a plan and motive. He wished that 129. Refer to volume two of the translation of this book.

  1. at-Tabari 5/115-116.

  2. Dhu Khushub is a land within one night's journey of Medina. (Mu'jam al-buldan 2/372).

'Uthman would be killed during the events so that he could claim the caliphate as 'Uthman's cousin.132 But, as we know, events took a different course; the people gathered round Imam 'Ali and chose him as caliph. When public allegiance was shown to Imam 'Ali, Mu'awiyah regretted his own negligence towards 'Uthman; for, he saw that the caliphate was now out of his reach. Therefore, he thought of a new plan and a fresh trick. He secretly wrote to Talhah and az-Zubayr and tried to rouse their desire for the position of caliph.

These two were sensual men who loved money, and had tasted the sweetness of being wealthy in 'Uthman's time. Therefore they easily accepted Mu'awiyah's wicked offer.133 His plan was to persuade those two, who pos- sessed much influence and credit in those days, to fight with the Imam, using the pretext of claiming vengeance for the blood of 'Uthman as an innocent caliph. Talhah and az-Zubayr were deceived by Mu'awiyah's trick and started the battle of al-Jamal, and, as we have already seen,134 Talhah was killed at the beginning of the battle, and az-Zubayr, who had retired from fighting, was unchivalrously killed by a man of the Tamim tribe.135 Thus two of the greatest rivals of Mu'awiyah for the caliphate departed from the scene, since the death of rivals from each front would bring Mu'awiyah one step nearer to his assumption of that position.

After Imam 'Ali became caliph, he sent a messenger by name of Jarir to Mu'awiyah to get allegiance. Mu'awiyah said to Jarir: "Tell your friend I am willing to submit to him and show allegiance on two conditions: Firstly to make ash-Sham and Egypt my fief and let tributes of these lands be mine, and secondly not to impose on me the allegiance to anyone after his own death!" These declarations clearly showed Mu'awiyah's intense desire for the caliphate. He knew well that he could not compete with Imam 'Ali since he lacked all the virtues and merits by which Imam 'Ali was known, and of which he was aware, and did not yet dare to rise in rebellion against the new caliph. He thought it more expedients to let others such as 'A'ishah, Talhah and az- Zubayr pave the way for him. Therefore he considered it wiser to come to terms with the Imam, and by gaining the governorship of Egypt (Muslim part of Africa) he could add another extensive province to his dominion, so that after the death of the Imam he could more easily secure the position of the caliphate.

Jarir responded: "You may write to him whatever you like, and I shall write my report."

Mu'awiyah wrote his proposals to the Imam, and the Imam sent the 132. Description of Nahj 57-58.

  1. Muruj adh-dhahab 2/332-333 published by Dar al-Andulus, and Usd al-ghabah 2/198 and 3/61.

  2. Refer to the second volume of the translation of this book pp. 109-115.

  3. Description of Nahj 580-581.

following answer to Jarir: "Mu'awiyah seems definitely resolved not to vow allegiance to me, and to do as he likes. He intends to detain and delay you so long as to secure the control of public opinion on his arrival. When I was in Medina, al-Mughayrah ibn-Shu'bah suggested that I should let Mu'awiyah remain in ash-Sham. I rejected this suggestion since I had no wish to let God see me desiring the aid of such perverse and wicked men as Mu'awiyah. If he agrees to show allegiance to me, all is well, otherwise you may return soon."136 Ibn Kathir, the historian of the 8th century, writes in his history book of al- Bidayah wa an-nihayah: 'Uqbah ibn Abi Mu'ayt wrote a letter to Mu'awiyah reproaching him severely for writing to Imam 'Ali and demanding the governorship of ash-Sham and Egypt, and included the following poetical lines in his letter:

"Mu'awiyah! Do not lose ash-Sham, for it is your land, Take care not to let enemies enter it who are as dangerous as vipers. 'Ali is waiting to see what you answer; Take a war as souvenir for him that whitens the black hair of the young. Defend your ash-Sham with swords and spears. Otherwise give way to submission in which lies security for him who desires no war.

O son of Harb! That letters which you wrote out of cupidity, Will bring you many great calamities. In that letter you have demanded things which you can never secure. Even if you secure what you have asked, it won't last more than one night. You will wait so long for the fulfillment of your desire, That you will eventually secure what is going to destroy you. Therefore, do not heap up so many fancies in your head. You can never deceive a man like 'Ali with your cunning! You have tested him sufficiently in the past And seen that he built up what you demolished. If his clutches penetrate you even once, He will skin you. You who skinned others." 137 Siffin, the battlefield of right and wrong

In Mu'awiyah's army five hundred Qur'ans were placed on spearheads. Al-Mas'udi We saw how Mu'awiyah, despite all his indebtedness to 'Uthman cunningly abstained from helping him, and delayed help to 'Uthman so long that 136. Nasr ibn Muzahim in Siffin 58, and Description of Nahj 1/250. 137. al-Bidayah wa an-nihayah 8/129.

dissatisfied Muslims finally killed 'Uthman. Maybe he intended thereby to remove a great obstacle in the way of his own aspirations to become the caliph. But following 'Uthman's assassination, and Contrary to Mu'awiyah's expectations, Imam 'Ali was chosen as caliph by the people and it was him who took charge of the affairs and with his usual determination demanded allegiance and submission from him.

But Mu'awiyah had made an evil and ruinous plan. He wished to fight the Imam under the pretext of the innocence of 'Uthman and claiming revenge for his blood, an excuse, which had been brought up first in the battle of al-Jamal. He hoped that in this way he would fulfill the great desire of his own and the will of his father Abu Sufyan, and seize control of the whole wide realm of Islam. Consequently he hung the bloody garment of 'Uthman by the pulpit of the mosque of Damascus, and commissioned a number of white-bearded and affectedly meek old men to gather round it and weep. Then in his sermon he declared 'Uthman to be an innocent guardian of the people who was killed unjustly and those who had murdered him must suffer vengeance for his blood. The people of ash-Sham were easily deceived by this scene making. Was it not true that they had been made to embrace Islam by his brother, Yazid, and had been governed by Mu'awiyah for twenty years? Therefore their simple- mindedness and their conduct which had been shaped by the Umayyads as well as their being accustomed to a life under them, had prepared them to accept the ideas and plans of Mu'awiyah. Therefore, all the people of ash-Sham showed allegiance and obedience to him.138

The ash-Shamis wanted to fight the Imam and were led to mistakenly believe that the assassins of 'Uthman were enjoying his protection. So they decided to seize the culprits and kill them in revenge for 'Uthman's blood. Allegiance was made with Mu'awiyah and the people of ash-Sham prepared themselves to accompany him in a war against Imam 'Ali. The two armies faced each other at Siffin in the lunar month of Rabi'al-Awwal (Rabi' I) in the year 36 of the Hijrah.139

The two armies remained in the wide plain of Siffin on the bank of the river Euphrates long. Imam 'Ali was in the habit of not making the first move in any of the wars, since this was the way of Islam and its counsel. He was always ready to defend. During the beginning days Mu'awiyah ordered his army to take control of the way to the river and blocked the way of access to water for Imam 'Ali's army. Although 'Amr ibn al-'As, the cunning counselor of Mu'awiyah, had advised him against it, arguing that Imam 'Ali would never let his army remain thirsty, Mu'awiyah did not abstain from that wicked move. But al-Ashtar, the brave commander of 'Ali's army, with his unceasing efforts captured the route of access to water from Mu'awiyah army, and then the Imam 138. Siffin 127-128 research by 'Abd as-Salam Harun.

  1. Siffin 209, and Description of Nahj 1/250.

in a manner fitting his noble and generous position as a religious leader, sent the following message to Mu'awiyah:

"We do not retaliate your mean action by a wrong deed. You and we are on an equal footing in the access to water. You may use and benefit from it, since water is for everybody's use."140 The trickery of Mu'awiyah Place the Qur'ans on spearheads. Mu'awiyah This was the first encounter of the two armies. A relative calmness reigned over the battlefield for a long time, since Imam 'Ali was doing his utmost not to impose his views by means of force and war. But the ash-Shamis spoke of nothing but avenging "'Uthman's blood".

In the month of Dhu al-Hijjah, some minor clashes took place between the two armies without producing any decisive result, and owing to the commencement of the month of Muharram (in which fighting is forbidden) both sides desisted from combat. But after the end of Muharram, the fight was resumed. During this time Mu'awiyah tried hard to gain the Imam's writ granting him the governorship of ash-Sham and thus put an end to the war. But the Imam could not at any cost accept the co-operation of such a man as Mu'awiyah.

In a fierce clash and owing to the valor and steadfastness of the army of the Imam, the right wing of his forces succeeded in advancing as far as the tent of Mu'awiyah, while the left wing retreated before the onslaught of the army of ash-Sham. It was then that the Imam himself entered the field and organized the retreating wing. Then he invited Mu'awiyah to a man-to-man combat so that with the death of one of the two an end would be put to the differences between the two sides, and all the bloodshed which was undesirable in his opinion, would cease. But Mu'awiyah refused the challenge for fear of his life, since he felt sure that he could not escape the powerful clutches of the Imam. Fighting continued into the night, and by dawn the final defeat of ash- Sham's army became evident. Malik al-Ashtar, the valiant man of Kufah, on the right wing and the Imam himself in the center made severe onslaughts on the enemy. The columns of the Kufah army had also penetrated deeply into the ash-Sham's front. Mu'awiyah was preparing to flee, for his defeat was close at hand, and this great pillar of paganism and infidelity was about to topple over, and the rule of 'Ali was to be established over the whole realm of Islam. 140. Siffin 193.

Suddenly 'Amr ibn al-'As, the cunning adviser of Mu'awiyah, thought of a devilish plan, and by his suggestion and Mu'awiyah's order the soldiers of ash- Sham placed copies of the Qur'an on their spearheads and shouted the slogan "We will submit to the verdict of the Qur'an." Five hundred copies of the Qur'an went up on spearheads.141 Those men of the Imam's army who had not really understood Islam were deceived by this great trick, and with the exception of steadfast warriors, no one could escape from its effect, especially on the hirelings of Mu'awiyah and hypocrites of the Kufah army such as al-Ash'ath ibn Qays were meanwhile doing their worst to create mischief and sedition.142

Despite the advises of the Imam and some wise men of his army to the effect that this act of Mu'awiyah was nothing but trickery and deceitfulness and despite the fact that they had been called to follow the Qur'an, they had shown no inclination, and the simple-minded rebels of Imam's army headed by al- Ash'ath refused to accept reason. As we have said, there was also some treason at work and Mu'awiyah's agents were trying in every possible way to prevent unity and unanimity.

At this time on the one hand Malik al-Ashtar had smashed the army of Mu'awiyah and was on the point of ending the battle in favour of the army of Iraq, and on the other hand al-Ash'ath and his supporters were putting a great pressure on the Imam to order al-Ashtar to return. The Imam ordered Malik to return, but Malik said: "Tell the Imam this not a suitable moment to recall me from the front. I am relying on God to grant me a speedy victory."

The messenger returned and reported Malik's answer. At the same moment a terrible dust rose and the shouts of the warriors filled the whole space, displaying the victory of the Iraqi army and defeat of ash-Sham's forces. Those who had surrounded the Imam cried out: "Have you ordered al-Ashtar to fan up the flame of war?" The Imam said: "Woe upon you! Did I send my messenger with a secret message? Did I not give him instruction in a loud voice within your hearing?" They said: "Send another message to al-Ashtar to return, otherwise we will leave you!"

The Imam sent the message telling al-Ashtar to return since a riot and sedition had started. Al-Ashtar asked: "Why? Do they make this riot only because the enemies have placed their Qur'ans on spearheads?" The messenger said: "Yes!" al-Ashtar said: "By God! I fear that this matter will produce a division amongst us. It is an action suggested by the son of Nabighah143 in order to produce a deadlock for us. Don't you see that God has granted us victory? Would it be right for me to withdraw from the battle at such a 141. al-Mas'udi in Muruj adh-dhahab 2/390 published by Dar al-Andulus.

  1. History of al-Ya'qubi 2/165, printed an-Najaf.

  2. Nabighah, mother of 'Amr ibn al-'As was a notorious prostitute of pagan times. Consequently his opponent's sarcastically called him Nabighah's son.

moment?" The messenger said: "Do you wish to get victory in the battlefield while they kill the Imam or surrender him to the enemy? They have said to the Imam: 'either make al-Ashtar return, or we will kill you with our swords in the same way that we killed 'Uthman, or we hand you over to your enemy as a captive.'" Al-Ashtar said: "By God! I don't desire such a victory," and withdrew at once from the battlefield and went to the Imam's presence, and then turned to those who had surrounded the Imam and said sharply to them: "O base weaklings! At a time when you have gained victory over the enemy, and have caught him who has trampled upon the Book of God and the Prophet's tradition, you tremble at his trickery, and surrender to his cunning invitation to the Qur'an? At least be wise enough to give me one hour's respite to end this war."

They said: "No!" He said: "All right give me time at least for one gallop of a horse!"

They replied: "Then we will become your accomplice in sin!" al-Ashtar said: "Tell me, were you in the right in those days when you were fighting and your good men like 'Ammar ibn Yasir got killed, or are you in the right now that your wicked ones are left and your desire peace? If you are in the right now, then your good men who were killed and whose chastity you cannot deny, are your burning in the fire of hell." They answered: "al-Ashtar! Leave us alone, for, we won't follow you. Keep away from us!"

Al-Ashtar said: "I swear to God that you have been deceived. We regarded your prayer as a sign of your love for God and your submission to Him. Now it is quite evident that you fear death and wish to flee, and are eager to stay in this world! After today you will never find honour and dignity. Stay away in the same way that the tyrants have gone away!" 144

The rioters, who were unable to find an answer, began to abuse him and whipped his horse. The dispute became more violent and al-Ashtar used sharp words. Then Imam ordered him to be quiet. They became silent. al-Ashtar turned to the Imam and said: "Give me to leave to attack them and vanquish all of them!" Those present protested, and Imam 'Ali at last agreed to arbitration in accordance with the verdict of the Qur'an. Al-Ashtar said: "If he agrees to this, I, too, am satisfied." The clamor rose from every side: "the commander of the faithful has agreed! He has agreed!"

Imam had retreated in deeper ponder remained silent, not uttering a word.145

  1. The Event of Siffin 2/491.
  2. The Event of Siffin 490-492.